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  <updated>2026-10-04T00:00:00.000Z</updated>
  <author><name>ELEC</name></author>
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      <id>https://gsxbxsg.github.io/posts/html-basics/</id>
      <title type="text">HTML 基础语法全解析：从零开始写网页（附 Markdown 对照）</title>
      <published>2026-10-02T00:00:00.000Z</published>
      <updated>2026-10-03T00:00:00.000Z</updated>
      <author><name>ELEC</name></author>
      <link rel="alternate" href="https://gsxbxsg.github.io/posts/html-basics/"/>
      <summary type="text">面向零基础的 HTML 入门指南。用「HTML 代码 + Markdown 对照 + 实际效果」三合一的方式，把标签、属性、文本、列表、链接、图片、表格、表单等基本语法一次讲清楚。</summary>
      <content type="html"><![CDATA[<p>如果你会写 Markdown，那你其实已经离 HTML 很近了——你写的每一个 <code># 标题</code>、<code>**粗体**</code>，最终都会被翻译成 HTML 交给浏览器显示。本文用「HTML 代码 + Markdown 对照 + 实际效果」的方式，带你把 HTML 的基本语法一次过完。</p>
<section><h2>一、HTML 是什么？<a href="#一html-是什么"><span>#</span></a></h2><p>HTML（<strong>H</strong>yper<strong>T</strong>ext <strong>M</strong>arkup <strong>L</strong>anguage，超文本标记语言）是网页的”骨架”。它不负责好看（那是 CSS 的事），也不负责交互（那是 JavaScript 的事），只负责告诉浏览器：<strong>这里是标题、这里是段落、这里有张图片</strong>。</p><div><div><div></div><div>一个简单的类比</div></div><div><ul>
<li><strong>HTML</strong> = 房子的结构（墙、门、窗）</li>
<li><strong>CSS</strong> = 装修（颜色、布局、风格）</li>
<li><strong>JavaScript</strong> = 水电（让房子”动”起来）</li>
</ul></div></div><section><h3>HTML 和 Markdown 是什么关系？<a href="#html-和-markdown-是什么关系"><span>#</span></a></h3><p>你在 Markdown 里写 <code># 标题</code>，渲染器会把它变成 <code>&lt;h1&gt;标题&lt;/h1&gt;</code>；写 <code>**加粗**</code>，会变成 <code>&lt;strong&gt;加粗&lt;/strong&gt;</code>。</p><p>所以可以这么理解：<strong>Markdown 是 HTML 的”速记法”</strong>。Markdown 能做的事 HTML 都能做，而 HTML 能做的事远比 Markdown 多（比如表单、视频、复杂表格）。这也是为什么在 Markdown 里可以直接混写 HTML——本文的很多”效果”演示就是这么做的。</p></section></section>
<section><h2>二、标签：HTML 的基本单位<a href="#二标签html-的基本单位"><span>#</span></a></h2><section><h3>2.1 元素的结构<a href="#21-元素的结构"><span>#</span></a></h3><div><figure><figcaption></figcaption><pre><code><div><div><div>1</div></div><div><span>&lt;</span><span>p</span><span>&gt;这是一个段落&lt;/</span><span>p</span><span>&gt;</span></div></div></code></pre><div><div></div><div></div></div></figure></div><p>把它拆开看：</p>

<table><thead><tr><th>组成</th><th>例子</th><th>说明</th></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td>开始标签</td><td><code>&lt;p&gt;</code></td><td>用尖括号包住标签名</td></tr><tr><td>内容</td><td><code>这是一个段落</code></td><td>显示在页面上的东西</td></tr><tr><td>结束标签</td><td><code>&lt;/p&gt;</code></td><td>比开始标签多一个斜杠 <code>/</code></td></tr></tbody></table><p>三者合起来叫一个 <strong>元素（Element）</strong>。绝大多数 HTML 标签都是这种”成对出现”的结构。</p></section><section><h3>2.2 属性：给标签加”参数”<a href="#22-属性给标签加参数"><span>#</span></a></h3><div><figure><figcaption></figcaption><pre><code><div><div><div>1</div></div><div><span>&lt;</span><span>a</span><span> </span><span>href</span><span>=</span><span>"https://astro.build"</span><span> </span><span>target</span><span>=</span><span>"_blank"</span><span>&gt;Astro 官网&lt;/</span><span>a</span><span>&gt;</span></div></div></code></pre><div><div></div><div></div></div></figure></div><p>属性写在<strong>开始标签</strong>里，格式是 <code>名称="值"</code>，多个属性之间用空格隔开。上面的 <code>href</code> 和 <code>target</code> 就是两个属性。</p><p>有几个属性几乎所有标签都能用，叫<strong>全局属性</strong>：</p>

<table><thead><tr><th>属性</th><th>作用</th><th>例子</th></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td><code>id</code></td><td>给元素一个<strong>唯一</strong>的名字</td><td><code>&lt;p id="intro"&gt;</code></td></tr><tr><td><code>class</code></td><td>给元素分类，可以重复、可以多个</td><td><code>&lt;p class="tip big"&gt;</code></td></tr><tr><td><code>style</code></td><td>直接写 CSS 样式</td><td><code>&lt;p style="color:red"&gt;</code></td></tr><tr><td><code>title</code></td><td>鼠标悬停时显示的提示</td><td><code>&lt;p title="提示"&gt;</code></td></tr></tbody></table></section><section><h3>2.3 自闭合标签（空元素）<a href="#23-自闭合标签空元素"><span>#</span></a></h3><p>有些标签天生没有”内容”，所以也不需要结束标签，比如换行 <code>&lt;br&gt;</code>、水平线 <code>&lt;hr&gt;</code>、图片 <code>&lt;img&gt;</code>、输入框 <code>&lt;input&gt;</code>：</p><div><figure><figcaption></figcaption><pre><code><div><div><div>1</div></div><div><span>&lt;</span><span>br</span><span>&gt;</span></div></div><div><div><div>2</div></div><div><span>&lt;</span><span>hr</span><span>&gt;</span></div></div><div><div><div>3</div></div><div><span>&lt;</span><span>img</span><span> </span><span>src</span><span>=</span><span>"cat.jpg"</span><span> </span><span>alt</span><span>=</span><span>"一只猫"</span><span>&gt;</span></div></div></code></pre><div><div></div><div></div></div></figure></div><p>写成 <code>&lt;br /&gt;</code> 也可以，两种写法都合法。</p></section><section><h3>2.4 注释<a href="#24-注释"><span>#</span></a></h3><div><figure><figcaption></figcaption><pre><code><div><div><div>1</div></div><div><span>&lt;!-- 我是注释，浏览器不会显示我 --&gt;</span></div></div></code></pre><div><div></div><div></div></div></figure></div><p>注释用来给自己或同事做说明，不会出现在页面上。</p></section><section><h3>2.5 嵌套：先开后关<a href="#25-嵌套先开后关"><span>#</span></a></h3><p>标签可以一层套一层，但必须像套娃一样 <strong>“后打开的先关闭”</strong>：</p><div><figure><figcaption></figcaption><pre><code><div><div><div>1</div></div><div><span>&lt;</span><span>p</span><span>&gt;这是 &lt;</span><span>strong</span><span>&gt;正确的&lt;/</span><span>strong</span><span>&gt; 嵌套&lt;/</span><span>p</span><span>&gt;      ✅</span></div></div><div><div><div>2</div></div><div>
</div></div><div><div><div>3</div></div><div><span>&lt;</span><span>p</span><span>&gt;这是 &lt;</span><span>strong</span><span>&gt;错误的&lt;/</span><span>p</span><span>&gt;&lt;/</span><span>strong</span><span>&gt; 嵌套        ❌ 交叉了</span></div></div></code></pre><div><div></div><div></div></div></figure></div><div><div><div></div><div>Warning</div></div><div><p>HTML 标签<strong>不区分大小写</strong>，<code>&lt;P&gt;</code> 和 <code>&lt;p&gt;</code> 效果一样，但约定俗成<strong>全部小写</strong>。属性值建议始终加双引号。</p></div></div></section></section>
<section><h2>三、一个最小的 HTML 页面<a href="#三一个最小的-html-页面"><span>#</span></a></h2><p>把下面的代码保存成 <code>index.html</code>，双击用浏览器打开，你的第一个网页就诞生了：</p><div><figure><figcaption><span>index.html</span></figcaption><pre><code><div><div><div>1</div></div><div><span>&lt;!</span><span>DOCTYPE</span><span> </span><span>html</span><span>&gt;</span></div></div><div><div><div>2</div></div><div><span>&lt;</span><span>html</span><span> </span><span>lang</span><span>=</span><span>"zh-CN"</span><span>&gt;</span></div></div><div><div><div>3</div></div><div><span>&lt;</span><span>head</span><span>&gt;</span></div></div><div><div><div>4</div></div><div><span><span>  </span></span><span>&lt;</span><span>meta</span><span> </span><span>charset</span><span>=</span><span>"UTF-8"</span><span>&gt;</span></div></div><div><div><div>5</div></div><div><span><span>  </span></span><span>&lt;</span><span>meta</span><span> </span><span>name</span><span>=</span><span>"viewport"</span><span> </span><span>content</span><span>=</span><span>"width=device-width, initial-scale=1.0"</span><span>&gt;</span></div></div><div><div><div>6</div></div><div><span><span>  </span></span><span>&lt;</span><span>title</span><span>&gt;我的第一个网页&lt;/</span><span>title</span><span>&gt;</span></div></div><div><div><div>7</div></div><div><span>&lt;/</span><span>head</span><span>&gt;</span></div></div><div><div><div>8</div></div><div><span>&lt;</span><span>body</span><span>&gt;</span></div></div><div><div><div>9</div></div><div><span><span>  </span></span><span>&lt;</span><span>h1</span><span>&gt;你好，世界！&lt;/</span><span>h1</span><span>&gt;</span></div></div><div><div><div>10</div></div><div><span><span>  </span></span><span>&lt;</span><span>p</span><span>&gt;这是我的第一个网页。&lt;/</span><span>p</span><span>&gt;</span></div></div><div><div><div>11</div></div><div><span>&lt;/</span><span>body</span><span>&gt;</span></div></div><div><div><div>12</div></div><div><span>&lt;/</span><span>html</span><span>&gt;</span></div></div></code></pre><div><div></div><div></div></div></figure></div><p>每一行都在干什么：</p>

<table><thead><tr><th>代码</th><th>作用</th></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td><code>&lt;!DOCTYPE html&gt;</code></td><td>声明这是 HTML5 文档，<strong>必须写在第一行</strong></td></tr><tr><td><code>&lt;html lang="zh-CN"&gt;</code></td><td>根元素，所有内容都在它里面；<code>lang</code> 声明页面语言</td></tr><tr><td><code>&lt;head&gt;</code></td><td>头部：放”看不见”的信息（编码、标题、CSS 引用等）</td></tr><tr><td><code>&lt;meta charset="UTF-8"&gt;</code></td><td>字符编码，<strong>不写中文会乱码</strong></td></tr><tr><td><code>&lt;meta name="viewport" ...&gt;</code></td><td>让手机端正常缩放</td></tr><tr><td><code>&lt;title&gt;</code></td><td>浏览器标签页上显示的文字</td></tr><tr><td><code>&lt;body&gt;</code></td><td>主体：所有”看得见”的内容都放这里</td></tr></tbody></table><div><div><div></div><div>Tip</div></div><div><p>记住一个口诀：<strong>head 放设置，body 放内容</strong>。以后写任何页面，都从这个模板开始。</p></div></div></section>
<section><h2>四、文本标签<a href="#四文本标签"><span>#</span></a></h2><section><h3>4.1 标题 <code>&lt;h1&gt;</code> ~ <code>&lt;h6&gt;</code><a href="#41-标题-h1--h6"><span>#</span></a></h3><p>HTML 提供六级标题，<code>h1</code> 最大最重要，<code>h6</code> 最小。</p><div><div>HTMLMarkdown 对照</div><div><div><figure><figcaption></figcaption><pre><code><div><div><div>1</div></div><div><span>&lt;</span><span>h1</span><span>&gt;一级标题&lt;/</span><span>h1</span><span>&gt;</span></div></div><div><div><div>2</div></div><div><span>&lt;</span><span>h2</span><span>&gt;二级标题&lt;/</span><span>h2</span><span>&gt;</span></div></div><div><div><div>3</div></div><div><span>&lt;</span><span>h3</span><span>&gt;三级标题&lt;/</span><span>h3</span><span>&gt;</span></div></div><div><div><div>4</div></div><div><span>&lt;</span><span>h4</span><span>&gt;四级标题&lt;/</span><span>h4</span><span>&gt;</span></div></div><div><div><div>5</div></div><div><span>&lt;</span><span>h5</span><span>&gt;五级标题&lt;/</span><span>h5</span><span>&gt;</span></div></div><div><div><div>6</div></div><div><span>&lt;</span><span>h6</span><span>&gt;六级标题&lt;/</span><span>h6</span><span>&gt;</span></div></div></code></pre><div><div></div><div></div></div></figure></div></div><div><div><figure><figcaption></figcaption><pre><code><div><div><div>1</div></div><div><span># 一级标题</span></div></div><div><div><div>2</div></div><div><span>## 二级标题</span></div></div><div><div><div>3</div></div><div><span>### 三级标题</span></div></div><div><div><div>4</div></div><div><span>#### 四级标题</span></div></div><div><div><div>5</div></div><div><span>##### 五级标题</span></div></div><div><div><div>6</div></div><div><span>###### 六级标题</span></div></div></code></pre><div><div></div><div></div></div></figure></div></div></div>
👀 点击查看效果
<div>一级标题</div>
<div>二级标题</div>
<div>三级标题</div>
<div>四级标题</div>
<div>五级标题</div>
<div>六级标题</div>
<div><div><div></div><div>Important</div></div><div><p>一个页面通常只有<strong>一个</strong> <code>&lt;h1&gt;</code>，标题要按层级使用。不要为了”字大”而用 <code>&lt;h1&gt;</code>——字号的问题交给 CSS。</p></div></div></section><section><h3>4.2 段落 <code>&lt;p&gt;</code>、换行 <code>&lt;br&gt;</code>、水平线 <code>&lt;hr&gt;</code><a href="#42-段落-p换行-br水平线-hr"><span>#</span></a></h3><div><div>HTMLMarkdown 对照</div><div><div><figure><figcaption></figcaption><pre><code><div><div><div>1</div></div><div><span>&lt;</span><span>p</span><span>&gt;这是第一段。HTML 会忽略源代码里的</span></div></div><div><div><div>2</div></div><div><span>换行和    多余空格，所以这句还在同一行。&lt;/</span><span>p</span><span>&gt;</span></div></div><div><div><div>3</div></div><div><span>&lt;</span><span>p</span><span>&gt;这是第二段，段落之间自动有间距。&lt;/</span><span>p</span><span>&gt;</span></div></div><div><div><div>4</div></div><div><span>&lt;</span><span>p</span><span>&gt;如果想在段落内强制换行，&lt;</span><span>br</span><span>&gt;就用 br 标签。&lt;/</span><span>p</span><span>&gt;</span></div></div><div><div><div>5</div></div><div><span>&lt;</span><span>hr</span><span>&gt;</span></div></div><div><div><div>6</div></div><div><span>&lt;</span><span>p</span><span>&gt;上面是一条水平分割线。&lt;/</span><span>p</span><span>&gt;</span></div></div></code></pre><div><div></div><div></div></div></figure></div></div><div><div><figure><figcaption></figcaption><pre><code><div><div><div>1</div></div><div><span>这是第一段。</span></div></div><div><div><div>2</div></div><div>
</div></div><div><div><div>3</div></div><div><span>这是第二段，空一行就是新段落。</span></div></div><div><div><div>4</div></div><div>
</div></div><div><div><div>5</div></div><div><span>行尾加两个空格</span></div></div><div><div><div>6</div></div><div><span>就是换行。</span></div></div><div><div><div>7</div></div><div>
</div></div><div><div><div>8</div></div><div><span>---</span></div></div><div><div><div>9</div></div><div>
</div></div><div><div><div>10</div></div><div><span>上面是一条水平分割线。</span></div></div></code></pre><div><div></div><div></div></div></figure></div></div></div>
👀 点击查看效果
<p>这是第一段。HTML 会忽略源代码里的
换行和    多余空格，所以这句还在同一行。</p>
<p>这是第二段，段落之间自动有间距。</p>
<p>如果想在段落内强制换行，<br />就用 br 标签。</p>
<hr />
<p>上面是一条水平分割线。</p>
<div><div><div></div><div>初学者最容易困惑的点</div></div><div><p>在 HTML 源代码里敲回车、敲空格是没用的，浏览器会把连续的空白压缩成一个空格。想换行请用 <code>&lt;br&gt;</code>，想分段请用 <code>&lt;p&gt;</code>。</p></div></div></section><section><h3>4.3 文字强调与修饰<a href="#43-文字强调与修饰"><span>#</span></a></h3><div><div>HTMLMarkdown 对照</div><div><div><figure><figcaption></figcaption><pre><code><div><div><div>1</div></div><div><span>&lt;</span><span>p</span><span>&gt;&lt;</span><span>strong</span><span>&gt;重要（加粗）&lt;/</span><span>strong</span><span>&gt; 和 &lt;</span><span>b</span><span>&gt;单纯加粗&lt;/</span><span>b</span><span>&gt;&lt;/</span><span>p</span><span>&gt;</span></div></div><div><div><div>2</div></div><div><span>&lt;</span><span>p</span><span>&gt;&lt;</span><span>em</span><span>&gt;强调（斜体）&lt;/</span><span>em</span><span>&gt; 和 &lt;</span><span>i</span><span>&gt;单纯斜体&lt;/</span><span>i</span><span>&gt;&lt;/</span><span>p</span><span>&gt;</span></div></div><div><div><div>3</div></div><div><span>&lt;</span><span>p</span><span>&gt;&lt;</span><span>u</span><span>&gt;下划线&lt;/</span><span>u</span><span>&gt;、&lt;</span><span>s</span><span>&gt;删除线&lt;/</span><span>s</span><span>&gt;、&lt;</span><span>mark</span><span>&gt;高亮&lt;/</span><span>mark</span><span>&gt;&lt;/</span><span>p</span><span>&gt;</span></div></div><div><div><div>4</div></div><div><span>&lt;</span><span>p</span><span>&gt;H&lt;</span><span>sub</span><span>&gt;2&lt;/</span><span>sub</span><span>&gt;O 是水，E = mc&lt;</span><span>sup</span><span>&gt;2&lt;/</span><span>sup</span><span>&gt; 是公式&lt;/</span><span>p</span><span>&gt;</span></div></div><div><div><div>5</div></div><div><span>&lt;</span><span>p</span><span>&gt;行内代码用 &lt;</span><span>code</span><span>&gt;console.log()&lt;/</span><span>code</span><span>&gt;&lt;/</span><span>p</span><span>&gt;</span></div></div><div><div><div>6</div></div><div><span>&lt;</span><span>p</span><span>&gt;按 &lt;</span><span>kbd</span><span>&gt;Ctrl&lt;/</span><span>kbd</span><span>&gt; + &lt;</span><span>kbd</span><span>&gt;C&lt;/</span><span>kbd</span><span>&gt; 复制&lt;/</span><span>p</span><span>&gt;</span></div></div><div><div><div>7</div></div><div><span>&lt;</span><span>p</span><span>&gt;&lt;</span><span>small</span><span>&gt;这是一行小字，常用于版权声明&lt;/</span><span>small</span><span>&gt;&lt;/</span><span>p</span><span>&gt;</span></div></div></code></pre><div><div></div><div></div></div></figure></div></div><div><div><figure><figcaption></figcaption><pre><code><div><div><div>1</div></div><div><span>**加粗**</span></div></div><div><div><div>2</div></div><div><span>*斜体*</span></div></div><div><div><div>3</div></div><div><span>~~删除线~~</span></div></div><div><div><div>4</div></div><div><span><span>`</span><span>行内代码</span><span>`</span></span></div></div><div><div><div>5</div></div><div>
</div></div><div><div><div>6</div></div><div><span>（下划线、高亮、上下标、kbd 等 Markdown 没有，需直接写 HTML）</span></div></div></code></pre><div><div></div><div></div></div></figure></div></div></div>
👀 点击查看效果
<p><strong>重要（加粗）</strong> 和 <b>单纯加粗</b></p>
<p><em>强调（斜体）</em> 和 <i>单纯斜体</i></p>
<p><u>下划线</u>、<s>删除线</s>、<mark>高亮</mark></p>
<p>H<sub>2</sub>O 是水，E = mc<sup>2</sup> 是公式</p>
<p>行内代码用 <code>console.log()</code></p>
<p>按 <kbd>Ctrl</kbd> + <kbd>C</kbd> 复制</p>
<p><small>这是一行小字，常用于版权声明</small></p>
<p><code>&lt;strong&gt;</code> 和 <code>&lt;b&gt;</code> 看起来一样，区别在<strong>语义</strong>：<code>&lt;strong&gt;</code> 表示”这很重要”，<code>&lt;b&gt;</code> 只是”把它弄粗”。<code>&lt;em&gt;</code> 与 <code>&lt;i&gt;</code> 同理。现代 HTML 更推荐使用有语义的 <code>&lt;strong&gt;</code> / <code>&lt;em&gt;</code>。</p></section><section><h3>4.4 引用与代码块<a href="#44-引用与代码块"><span>#</span></a></h3><div><div>HTMLMarkdown 对照</div><div><div><div><div><figure><figcaption></figcaption><pre><code><div><div><div>1</div></div><div><span>&lt;</span><span>blockquote</span><span>&gt;</span></div></div><div><div><div>2</div></div><div><span><span>  </span></span><span>千里之行，始于足下。</span></div></div><div><div><div>3</div></div><div><span>&lt;/</span><span>blockquote</span><span>&gt;</span></div></div><div><div><div>4</div></div><div>
</div></div><div><div><div>5</div></div><div><span>&lt;</span><span>p</span><span>&gt;他说：&lt;</span><span>q</span><span>&gt;明天见&lt;/</span><span>q</span><span>&gt;。&lt;/</span><span>p</span><span>&gt;</span></div></div><div><div><div>6</div></div><div>
</div></div><div><div><div>7</div></div><div><span>&lt;</span><span>pre</span><span>&gt;</span></div></div><div><div><div>8</div></div><div><span>保留    原始格式</span></div></div><div><div><div>9</div></div><div><span><span>  </span></span><span>包括缩进和</span></div></div><div><div><div>10</div></div><div><span>换行</span></div></div><div><div><div>11</div></div><div><span>&lt;/</span><span>pre</span><span>&gt;</span></div></div><div><div><div>12</div></div><div>
</div></div><div><div><div>13</div></div><div><span>&lt;</span><span>pre</span><span>&gt;&lt;</span><span>code</span><span>&gt;function hello() {</span></div></div><div><div><div>14</div></div><div><span><span>  </span></span><span>console.log("Hello");</span></div></div><div><div><div>15</div></div><div><span>}&lt;/</span><span>code</span><span>&gt;&lt;/</span><span>pre</span><span>&gt;</span></div></div></code></pre><div><div></div><div></div></div></figure><div></div></div><span>展开</span><span>收起</span></div></div></div><div><div><figure><figcaption></figcaption><pre><code><div><div><div>1</div></div><div><span>&gt; 千里之行，始于足下。</span></div></div><div><div><div>2</div></div><div>
</div></div><div><div><div>3</div></div><div><span>```js</span></div></div><div><div><div>4</div></div><div><span>function</span><span> </span><span>hello</span><span>() {</span></div></div><div><div><div>5</div></div><div><span><span>  </span></span><span>console</span><span>.</span><span>log</span><span>(</span><span>"Hello"</span><span>);</span></div></div><div><div><div>6</div></div><div><span>}</span></div></div><div><div><div>7</div></div><div><span>```</span></div></div></code></pre><div><div></div><div></div></div></figure></div></div></div>
👀 点击查看效果
<blockquote>
  千里之行，始于足下。
</blockquote>
<p>他说：<q>明天见</q>。</p>
<pre>保留    原始格式
  包括缩进和
换行
</pre>
<ul>
<li><code>&lt;blockquote&gt;</code> 是块级引用，<code>&lt;q&gt;</code> 是行内短引用（浏览器会自动加引号）</li>
<li><code>&lt;pre&gt;</code> 会<strong>原样保留</strong>空格和换行，通常和 <code>&lt;code&gt;</code> 搭配显示代码</li>
</ul></section></section>
<section><h2>五、列表<a href="#五列表"><span>#</span></a></h2><p>HTML 有三种列表：无序列表、有序列表、定义列表。列表项都用 <code>&lt;li&gt;</code>（<strong>l</strong>ist <strong>i</strong>tem）。</p><div><div>HTMLMarkdown 对照</div><div><div><div><div><figure><figcaption></figcaption><pre><code><div><div><div>1</div></div><div><span>&lt;!-- 无序列表 unordered list --&gt;</span></div></div><div><div><div>2</div></div><div><span>&lt;</span><span>ul</span><span>&gt;</span></div></div><div><div><div>3</div></div><div><span><span>  </span></span><span>&lt;</span><span>li</span><span>&gt;苹果&lt;/</span><span>li</span><span>&gt;</span></div></div><div><div><div>4</div></div><div><span><span>  </span></span><span>&lt;</span><span>li</span><span>&gt;香蕉&lt;/</span><span>li</span><span>&gt;</span></div></div><div><div><div>5</div></div><div><span><span>  </span></span><span>&lt;</span><span>li</span><span>&gt;橙子&lt;/</span><span>li</span><span>&gt;</span></div></div><div><div><div>6</div></div><div><span>&lt;/</span><span>ul</span><span>&gt;</span></div></div><div><div><div>7</div></div><div>
</div></div><div><div><div>8</div></div><div><span>&lt;!-- 有序列表 ordered list --&gt;</span></div></div><div><div><div>9</div></div><div><span>&lt;</span><span>ol</span><span>&gt;</span></div></div><div><div><div>10</div></div><div><span><span>  </span></span><span>&lt;</span><span>li</span><span>&gt;打开冰箱&lt;/</span><span>li</span><span>&gt;</span></div></div><div><div><div>11</div></div><div><span><span>  </span></span><span>&lt;</span><span>li</span><span>&gt;放入大象&lt;/</span><span>li</span><span>&gt;</span></div></div><div><div><div>12</div></div><div><span><span>  </span></span><span>&lt;</span><span>li</span><span>&gt;关上冰箱&lt;/</span><span>li</span><span>&gt;</span></div></div><div><div><div>13</div></div><div><span>&lt;/</span><span>ol</span><span>&gt;</span></div></div><div><div><div>14</div></div><div>
</div></div><div><div><div>15</div></div><div><span>&lt;!-- 嵌套列表 --&gt;</span></div></div><div><div><div>16</div></div><div><span>&lt;</span><span>ul</span><span>&gt;</span></div></div><div><div><div>17</div></div><div><span><span>  </span></span><span>&lt;</span><span>li</span><span>&gt;前端</span></div></div><div><div><div>18</div></div><div><span><span>    </span></span><span>&lt;</span><span>ul</span><span>&gt;</span></div></div><div><div><div>19</div></div><div><span><span>      </span></span><span>&lt;</span><span>li</span><span>&gt;HTML&lt;/</span><span>li</span><span>&gt;</span></div></div><div><div><div>20</div></div><div><span><span>      </span></span><span>&lt;</span><span>li</span><span>&gt;CSS&lt;/</span><span>li</span><span>&gt;</span></div></div><div><div><div>21</div></div><div><span><span>    </span></span><span>&lt;/</span><span>ul</span><span>&gt;</span></div></div><div><div><div>22</div></div><div><span><span>  </span></span><span>&lt;/</span><span>li</span><span>&gt;</span></div></div><div><div><div>23</div></div><div><span><span>  </span></span><span>&lt;</span><span>li</span><span>&gt;后端&lt;/</span><span>li</span><span>&gt;</span></div></div><div><div><div>24</div></div><div><span>&lt;/</span><span>ul</span><span>&gt;</span></div></div><div><div><div>25</div></div><div>
</div></div><div><div><div>26</div></div><div><span>&lt;!-- 定义列表 definition list --&gt;</span></div></div><div><div><div>27</div></div><div><span>&lt;</span><span>dl</span><span>&gt;</span></div></div><div><div><div>28</div></div><div><span><span>  </span></span><span>&lt;</span><span>dt</span><span>&gt;HTML&lt;/</span><span>dt</span><span>&gt;</span></div></div><div><div><div>29</div></div><div><span><span>  </span></span><span>&lt;</span><span>dd</span><span>&gt;网页的结构&lt;/</span><span>dd</span><span>&gt;</span></div></div><div><div><div>30</div></div><div><span><span>  </span></span><span>&lt;</span><span>dt</span><span>&gt;CSS&lt;/</span><span>dt</span><span>&gt;</span></div></div><div><div><div>31</div></div><div><span><span>  </span></span><span>&lt;</span><span>dd</span><span>&gt;网页的样式&lt;/</span><span>dd</span><span>&gt;</span></div></div><div><div><div>32</div></div><div><span>&lt;/</span><span>dl</span><span>&gt;</span></div></div></code></pre><div><div></div><div></div></div></figure><div></div></div><span>展开</span><span>收起</span></div></div></div><div><div><figure><figcaption></figcaption><pre><code><div><div><div>1</div></div><div><span><span>-</span><span> 苹果</span></span></div></div><div><div><div>2</div></div><div><span><span>-</span><span> 香蕉</span></span></div></div><div><div><div>3</div></div><div><span><span>-</span><span> 橙子</span></span></div></div><div><div><div>4</div></div><div>
</div></div><div><div><div>5</div></div><div><span><span>1.</span><span> 打开冰箱</span></span></div></div><div><div><div>6</div></div><div><span><span>2.</span><span> 放入大象</span></span></div></div><div><div><div>7</div></div><div><span><span>3.</span><span> 关上冰箱</span></span></div></div><div><div><div>8</div></div><div>
</div></div><div><div><div>9</div></div><div><span><span>-</span><span> 前端</span></span></div></div><div><div><div>10</div></div><div><span><span>  </span></span><span>-</span><span> HTML</span></div></div><div><div><div>11</div></div><div><span><span>  </span></span><span>-</span><span> CSS</span></div></div><div><div><div>12</div></div><div><span><span>-</span><span> 后端</span></span></div></div><div><div><div>13</div></div><div>
</div></div><div><div><div>14</div></div><div><span>（定义列表 Markdown 没有）</span></div></div></code></pre><div><div></div><div></div></div></figure></div></div></div>
👀 点击查看效果
<ul>
  <li>苹果</li>
  <li>香蕉</li>
  <li>橙子</li>
</ul>
<ol>
  <li>打开冰箱</li>
  <li>放入大象</li>
  <li>关上冰箱</li>
</ol>
<ul>
  <li>前端
    <ul>
      <li>HTML</li>
      <li>CSS</li>
    </ul>
  </li>
  <li>后端</li>
</ul>
<dl>
  <dt><b>HTML</b></dt>
  <dd>网页的结构</dd>
  <dt><b>CSS</b></dt>
  <dd>网页的样式</dd>
</dl>
<div><div><div></div><div>Note</div></div><div><p><code>&lt;ol&gt;</code> 可以用 <code>start="5"</code> 指定从 5 开始编号，用 <code>type="A"</code> 改成字母编号，用 <code>reversed</code> 倒序。</p></div></div></section>
<section><h2>六、链接 <code>&lt;a&gt;</code><a href="#六链接-a"><span>#</span></a></h2><p>链接是”超文本”中”超”的来源。标签名 <code>a</code> 是 <strong>a</strong>nchor（锚）的缩写。</p><div><div>HTMLMarkdown 对照</div><div><div><div><div><figure><figcaption></figcaption><pre><code><div><div><div>1</div></div><div><span>&lt;!-- 最基本的链接 --&gt;</span></div></div><div><div><div>2</div></div><div><span>&lt;</span><span>a</span><span> </span><span>href</span><span>=</span><span>"https://astro.build"</span><span>&gt;Astro 官网&lt;/</span><span>a</span><span>&gt;</span></div></div><div><div><div>3</div></div><div>
</div></div><div><div><div>4</div></div><div><span>&lt;!-- 在新标签页打开 --&gt;</span></div></div><div><div><div>5</div></div><div><span>&lt;</span><span>a</span><span> </span><span>href</span><span>=</span><span>"https://astro.build"</span><span> </span><span>target</span><span>=</span><span>"_blank"</span><span>&gt;新窗口打开&lt;/</span><span>a</span><span>&gt;</span></div></div><div><div><div>6</div></div><div>
</div></div><div><div><div>7</div></div><div><span>&lt;!-- 鼠标悬停提示 --&gt;</span></div></div><div><div><div>8</div></div><div><span>&lt;</span><span>a</span><span> </span><span>href</span><span>=</span><span>"https://astro.build"</span><span> </span><span>title</span><span>=</span><span>"点我去 Astro"</span><span>&gt;带提示的链接&lt;/</span><span>a</span><span>&gt;</span></div></div><div><div><div>9</div></div><div>
</div></div><div><div><div>10</div></div><div><span>&lt;!-- 页面内跳转（锚点）：跳到 id="top" 的元素 --&gt;</span></div></div><div><div><div>11</div></div><div><span>&lt;</span><span>a</span><span> </span><span>href</span><span>=</span><span>"#top"</span><span>&gt;回到顶部&lt;/</span><span>a</span><span>&gt;</span></div></div><div><div><div>12</div></div><div>
</div></div><div><div><div>13</div></div><div><span>&lt;!-- 发邮件 / 打电话 --&gt;</span></div></div><div><div><div>14</div></div><div><span>&lt;</span><span>a</span><span> </span><span>href</span><span>=</span><span>"mailto:me@example.com"</span><span>&gt;给我发邮件&lt;/</span><span>a</span><span>&gt;</span></div></div><div><div><div>15</div></div><div><span>&lt;</span><span>a</span><span> </span><span>href</span><span>=</span><span>"tel:10086"</span><span>&gt;拨打电话&lt;/</span><span>a</span><span>&gt;</span></div></div><div><div><div>16</div></div><div>
</div></div><div><div><div>17</div></div><div><span>&lt;!-- 相对路径：链接到同目录下的 about.html --&gt;</span></div></div><div><div><div>18</div></div><div><span>&lt;</span><span>a</span><span> </span><span>href</span><span>=</span><span>"about.html"</span><span>&gt;关于我&lt;/</span><span>a</span><span>&gt;</span></div></div></code></pre><div><div></div><div></div></div></figure><div></div></div><span>展开</span><span>收起</span></div></div></div><div><div><figure><figcaption></figcaption><pre><code><div><div><div>1</div></div><div><span>[</span><span>Astro 官网</span><span>]</span><span><span>(</span><span>https://astro.build</span><span>)</span></span></div></div><div><div><div>2</div></div><div>
</div></div><div><div><div>3</div></div><div><span>[</span><span>带提示的链接</span><span>]</span><span><span>(</span><span>https://astro.build</span></span><span> </span><span>"</span><span>点我去 Astro</span><span>"</span><span>)</span></div></div><div><div><div>4</div></div><div>
</div></div><div><div><div>5</div></div><div><span>（新窗口打开、锚点等需要直接写 HTML）</span></div></div></code></pre><div><div></div><div></div></div></figure></div></div></div>
👀 点击查看效果
<p><a href="https://astro.build">Astro 官网</a></p>
<p><a href="https://astro.build" target="_blank">新窗口打开</a></p>
<p><a href="https://astro.build">带提示的链接（鼠标悬停试试）</a></p>
<p><a href="#一html-是什么">跳到本文开头（锚点演示）</a></p>
<p><a href="mailto:me@example.com">给我发邮件</a></p>

<table><thead><tr><th>属性</th><th>说明</th></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td><code>href</code></td><td>目标地址，可以是网址、相对路径、<code>#锚点</code>、<code>mailto:</code>、<code>tel:</code></td></tr><tr><td><code>target="_blank"</code></td><td>在新标签页打开</td></tr><tr><td><code>title</code></td><td>悬停提示文字</td></tr></tbody></table></section>
<section><h2>七、图片 <code>&lt;img&gt;</code><a href="#七图片-img"><span>#</span></a></h2><div><div>HTMLMarkdown 对照</div><div><div><figure><figcaption></figcaption><pre><code><div><div><div>1</div></div><div><span>&lt;</span><span>img</span><span> </span><span>src</span><span>=</span><span>"/favicon/firefly-32.png"</span><span> </span><span>alt</span><span>=</span><span>"Firefly 图标"</span><span> </span><span>width</span><span>=</span><span>"64"</span><span>&gt;</span></div></div><div><div><div>2</div></div><div>
</div></div><div><div><div>3</div></div><div><span>&lt;!-- 带说明文字的图片 --&gt;</span></div></div><div><div><div>4</div></div><div><span>&lt;</span><span>figure</span><span>&gt;</span></div></div><div><div><div>5</div></div><div><span><span>  </span></span><span>&lt;</span><span>img</span><span> </span><span>src</span><span>=</span><span>"/favicon/firefly-32.png"</span><span> </span><span>alt</span><span>=</span><span>"Firefly 图标"</span><span> </span><span>width</span><span>=</span><span>"48"</span><span>&gt;</span></div></div><div><div><div>6</div></div><div><span><span>  </span></span><span>&lt;</span><span>figcaption</span><span>&gt;图 1：Firefly 主题的图标&lt;/</span><span>figcaption</span><span>&gt;</span></div></div><div><div><div>7</div></div><div><span>&lt;/</span><span>figure</span><span>&gt;</span></div></div><div><div><div>8</div></div><div>
</div></div><div><div><div>9</div></div><div><span>&lt;!-- 图片链接：把 img 包在 a 里 --&gt;</span></div></div><div><div><div>10</div></div><div><span>&lt;</span><span>a</span><span> </span><span>href</span><span>=</span><span>"https://astro.build"</span><span>&gt;</span></div></div><div><div><div>11</div></div><div><span><span>  </span></span><span>&lt;</span><span>img</span><span> </span><span>src</span><span>=</span><span>"/favicon/firefly-32.png"</span><span> </span><span>alt</span><span>=</span><span>"去 Astro"</span><span> </span><span>width</span><span>=</span><span>"32"</span><span>&gt;</span></div></div><div><div><div>12</div></div><div><span>&lt;/</span><span>a</span><span>&gt;</span></div></div></code></pre><div><div></div><div></div></div></figure></div></div><div><div><figure><figcaption></figcaption><pre><code><div><div><div>1</div></div><div><span>![</span><span>Firefly 图标</span><span>]</span><span><span>(</span><span>/favicon/firefly-32.png</span><span>)</span></span></div></div><div><div><div>2</div></div><div>
</div></div><div><div><div>3</div></div><div><span>[</span><span>![去 Astro]</span><span><span>(</span><span>/favicon/firefly-32.png</span><span>)</span></span><span>]</span><span><span>(</span><span>https://astro.build</span><span>)</span></span></div></div><div><div><div>4</div></div><div>
</div></div><div><div><div>5</div></div><div><span>（Markdown 无法直接控制宽度，需要写 HTML）</span></div></div></code></pre><div><div></div><div></div></div></figure></div></div></div>
👀 点击查看效果
<img src="/favicon/firefly-32.png" alt="Firefly 图标" width="64" />
<figure>
  <img src="/favicon/firefly-32.png" alt="Firefly 图标" width="48" />
  <figcaption>图 1：Firefly 主题的图标</figcaption>
</figure>

<table><thead><tr><th>属性</th><th>说明</th></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td><code>src</code></td><td>图片地址（<strong>必填</strong>）</td></tr><tr><td><code>alt</code></td><td>图片加载失败时显示的替代文字，也是屏幕阅读器读的内容（<strong>强烈建议填写</strong>）</td></tr><tr><td><code>width</code> / <code>height</code></td><td>宽高，单位像素；只写一个另一个会等比缩放</td></tr></tbody></table><div><div><div></div><div>Warning</div></div><div><p><code>alt</code> 不是可有可无的：它关系到<strong>无障碍访问</strong>和 <strong>SEO</strong>。养成每张图都写 <code>alt</code> 的习惯。</p></div></div></section>
<section><h2>八、表格 <code>&lt;table&gt;</code><a href="#八表格-table"><span>#</span></a></h2><p>表格的结构稍微复杂一点，记住一个层级：<strong>表格 → 行 → 单元格</strong>。</p><div><div>HTMLMarkdown 对照</div><div><div><div><div><figure><figcaption></figcaption><pre><code><div><div><div>1</div></div><div><span>&lt;</span><span>table</span><span>&gt;</span></div></div><div><div><div>2</div></div><div><span><span>  </span></span><span>&lt;</span><span>thead</span><span>&gt;            </span><span>&lt;!-- 表头 --&gt;</span></div></div><div><div><div>3</div></div><div><span><span>    </span></span><span>&lt;</span><span>tr</span><span>&gt;             </span><span>&lt;!-- 一行 table row --&gt;</span></div></div><div><div><div>4</div></div><div><span><span>      </span></span><span>&lt;</span><span>th</span><span>&gt;姓名&lt;/</span><span>th</span><span>&gt;   </span><span>&lt;!-- 表头单元格 table header --&gt;</span></div></div><div><div><div>5</div></div><div><span><span>      </span></span><span>&lt;</span><span>th</span><span>&gt;年龄&lt;/</span><span>th</span><span>&gt;</span></div></div><div><div><div>6</div></div><div><span><span>      </span></span><span>&lt;</span><span>th</span><span>&gt;城市&lt;/</span><span>th</span><span>&gt;</span></div></div><div><div><div>7</div></div><div><span><span>    </span></span><span>&lt;/</span><span>tr</span><span>&gt;</span></div></div><div><div><div>8</div></div><div><span><span>  </span></span><span>&lt;/</span><span>thead</span><span>&gt;</span></div></div><div><div><div>9</div></div><div><span><span>  </span></span><span>&lt;</span><span>tbody</span><span>&gt;            </span><span>&lt;!-- 表体 --&gt;</span></div></div><div><div><div>10</div></div><div><span><span>    </span></span><span>&lt;</span><span>tr</span><span>&gt;</span></div></div><div><div><div>11</div></div><div><span><span>      </span></span><span>&lt;</span><span>td</span><span>&gt;小明&lt;/</span><span>td</span><span>&gt;   </span><span>&lt;!-- 普通单元格 table data --&gt;</span></div></div><div><div><div>12</div></div><div><span><span>      </span></span><span>&lt;</span><span>td</span><span>&gt;18&lt;/</span><span>td</span><span>&gt;</span></div></div><div><div><div>13</div></div><div><span><span>      </span></span><span>&lt;</span><span>td</span><span>&gt;北京&lt;/</span><span>td</span><span>&gt;</span></div></div><div><div><div>14</div></div><div><span><span>    </span></span><span>&lt;/</span><span>tr</span><span>&gt;</span></div></div><div><div><div>15</div></div><div><span><span>    </span></span><span>&lt;</span><span>tr</span><span>&gt;</span></div></div><div><div><div>16</div></div><div><span><span>      </span></span><span>&lt;</span><span>td</span><span>&gt;小红&lt;/</span><span>td</span><span>&gt;</span></div></div><div><div><div>17</div></div><div><span><span>      </span></span><span>&lt;</span><span>td</span><span>&gt;20&lt;/</span><span>td</span><span>&gt;</span></div></div><div><div><div>18</div></div><div><span><span>      </span></span><span>&lt;</span><span>td</span><span>&gt;上海&lt;/</span><span>td</span><span>&gt;</span></div></div><div><div><div>19</div></div><div><span><span>    </span></span><span>&lt;/</span><span>tr</span><span>&gt;</span></div></div><div><div><div>20</div></div><div><span><span>  </span></span><span>&lt;/</span><span>tbody</span><span>&gt;</span></div></div><div><div><div>21</div></div><div><span>&lt;/</span><span>table</span><span>&gt;</span></div></div></code></pre><div><div></div><div></div></div></figure><div></div></div><span>展开</span><span>收起</span></div></div></div><div><div><figure><figcaption></figcaption><pre><code><div><div><div>1</div></div><div><span>| 姓名 | 年龄 | 城市 |</span></div></div><div><div><div>2</div></div><div><span>| --- | --- | --- |</span></div></div><div><div><div>3</div></div><div><span>| 小明 | 18 | 北京 |</span></div></div><div><div><div>4</div></div><div><span>| 小红 | 20 | 上海 |</span></div></div></code></pre><div><div></div><div></div></div></figure></div></div></div>
👀 点击查看效果
<table>
  <thead>
    <tr>
      <th>姓名</th>
      <th>年龄</th>
      <th>城市</th>
    </tr>
  </thead>
  <tbody>
    <tr>
      <td>小明</td>
      <td>18</td>
      <td>北京</td>
    </tr>
    <tr>
      <td>小红</td>
      <td>20</td>
      <td>上海</td>
    </tr>
  </tbody>
</table>
<section><h3>合并单元格<a href="#合并单元格"><span>#</span></a></h3><p>Markdown 做不到的事来了：<code>colspan</code> 横向合并、<code>rowspan</code> 纵向合并。</p><div><figure><figcaption></figcaption><pre><code><div><div><div>1</div></div><div><span>&lt;</span><span>table</span><span>&gt;</span></div></div><div><div><div>2</div></div><div><span><span>  </span></span><span>&lt;</span><span>tr</span><span>&gt;</span></div></div><div><div><div>3</div></div><div><span><span>    </span></span><span>&lt;</span><span>th</span><span> </span><span>colspan</span><span>=</span><span>"2"</span><span>&gt;横向合并两格&lt;/</span><span>th</span><span>&gt;</span></div></div><div><div><div>4</div></div><div><span><span>  </span></span><span>&lt;/</span><span>tr</span><span>&gt;</span></div></div><div><div><div>5</div></div><div><span><span>  </span></span><span>&lt;</span><span>tr</span><span>&gt;</span></div></div><div><div><div>6</div></div><div><span><span>    </span></span><span>&lt;</span><span>td</span><span> </span><span>rowspan</span><span>=</span><span>"2"</span><span>&gt;纵向合并两格&lt;/</span><span>td</span><span>&gt;</span></div></div><div><div><div>7</div></div><div><span><span>    </span></span><span>&lt;</span><span>td</span><span>&gt;A&lt;/</span><span>td</span><span>&gt;</span></div></div><div><div><div>8</div></div><div><span><span>  </span></span><span>&lt;/</span><span>tr</span><span>&gt;</span></div></div><div><div><div>9</div></div><div><span><span>  </span></span><span>&lt;</span><span>tr</span><span>&gt;</span></div></div><div><div><div>10</div></div><div><span><span>    </span></span><span>&lt;</span><span>td</span><span>&gt;B&lt;/</span><span>td</span><span>&gt;</span></div></div><div><div><div>11</div></div><div><span><span>  </span></span><span>&lt;/</span><span>tr</span><span>&gt;</span></div></div><div><div><div>12</div></div><div><span>&lt;/</span><span>table</span><span>&gt;</span></div></div></code></pre><div><div></div><div></div></div></figure></div>
👀 点击查看效果
<table>
  <tbody><tr>
    <th>横向合并两格</th>
  </tr>
  <tr>
    <td>纵向合并两格</td>
    <td>A</td>
  </tr>
  <tr>
    <td>B</td>
  </tr>
</tbody></table>
</section></section>
<section><h2>九、容器与语义化标签<a href="#九容器与语义化标签"><span>#</span></a></h2><section><h3>9.1 <code>&lt;div&gt;</code> 和 <code>&lt;span&gt;</code><a href="#91-div-和-span"><span>#</span></a></h3><p>这两个标签本身<strong>没有任何样式和含义</strong>，纯粹是用来”打包”内容、方便配合 CSS 的：</p><ul>
<li><code>&lt;div&gt;</code> 是<strong>块级</strong>容器：独占一行，像一个箱子</li>
<li><code>&lt;span&gt;</code> 是<strong>行内</strong>容器：不换行，像一个标签贴在文字上</li>
</ul><div><figure><figcaption></figcaption><pre><code><div><div><div>1</div></div><div><span>&lt;</span><span>div</span><span> </span><span>class</span><span>=</span><span>"card"</span><span>&gt;</span></div></div><div><div><div>2</div></div><div><span><span>  </span></span><span>&lt;</span><span>p</span><span>&gt;这是卡片里的一段话，其中 &lt;</span><span>span</span><span> </span><span>class</span><span>=</span><span>"highlight"</span><span>&gt;这几个字&lt;/</span><span>span</span><span>&gt; 要高亮。&lt;/</span><span>p</span><span>&gt;</span></div></div><div><div><div>3</div></div><div><span>&lt;/</span><span>div</span><span>&gt;</span></div></div></code></pre><div><div></div><div></div></div></figure></div><div><div><div></div><div>块级 vs 行内</div></div><div><p>这是 HTML 里很重要的概念：</p><ul>
<li>块级元素（<code>div</code>、<code>p</code>、<code>h1</code>、<code>ul</code>、<code>table</code>……）默认独占一行</li>
<li>行内元素（<code>span</code>、<code>a</code>、<code>strong</code>、<code>img</code>、<code>code</code>……）默认和文字排在一起</li>
</ul></div></div></section><section><h3>9.2 语义化标签<a href="#92-语义化标签"><span>#</span></a></h3><p>HTML5 新增了一批”自带含义”的容器，它们的显示效果和 <code>&lt;div&gt;</code> 一模一样，但能让代码更易读、对搜索引擎和屏幕阅读器更友好：</p><div><figure><figcaption></figcaption><pre><code><div><div><div>1</div></div><div><span>&lt;</span><span>body</span><span>&gt;</span></div></div><div><div><div>2</div></div><div><span><span>  </span></span><span>&lt;</span><span>header</span><span>&gt;网站头部：Logo、站名&lt;/</span><span>header</span><span>&gt;</span></div></div><div><div><div>3</div></div><div><span><span>  </span></span><span>&lt;</span><span>nav</span><span>&gt;导航栏：首页 / 归档 / 关于&lt;/</span><span>nav</span><span>&gt;</span></div></div><div><div><div>4</div></div><div><span><span>  </span></span><span>&lt;</span><span>main</span><span>&gt;</span></div></div><div><div><div>5</div></div><div><span><span>    </span></span><span>&lt;</span><span>article</span><span>&gt;</span></div></div><div><div><div>6</div></div><div><span><span>      </span></span><span>&lt;</span><span>h1</span><span>&gt;文章标题&lt;/</span><span>h1</span><span>&gt;</span></div></div><div><div><div>7</div></div><div><span><span>      </span></span><span>&lt;</span><span>p</span><span>&gt;文章正文……&lt;/</span><span>p</span><span>&gt;</span></div></div><div><div><div>8</div></div><div><span><span>    </span></span><span>&lt;/</span><span>article</span><span>&gt;</span></div></div><div><div><div>9</div></div><div><span><span>    </span></span><span>&lt;</span><span>aside</span><span>&gt;侧边栏：作者信息、推荐阅读&lt;/</span><span>aside</span><span>&gt;</span></div></div><div><div><div>10</div></div><div><span><span>  </span></span><span>&lt;/</span><span>main</span><span>&gt;</span></div></div><div><div><div>11</div></div><div><span><span>  </span></span><span>&lt;</span><span>footer</span><span>&gt;页脚：版权信息&lt;/</span><span>footer</span><span>&gt;</span></div></div><div><div><div>12</div></div><div><span>&lt;/</span><span>body</span><span>&gt;</span></div></div></code></pre><div><div></div><div></div></div></figure></div>

<table><thead><tr><th>标签</th><th>含义</th></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td><code>&lt;header&gt;</code></td><td>页面或区块的头部</td></tr><tr><td><code>&lt;nav&gt;</code></td><td>导航链接区</td></tr><tr><td><code>&lt;main&gt;</code></td><td>页面主体内容（每页只有一个）</td></tr><tr><td><code>&lt;article&gt;</code></td><td>独立完整的内容，如一篇文章</td></tr><tr><td><code>&lt;section&gt;</code></td><td>内容的一个章节</td></tr><tr><td><code>&lt;aside&gt;</code></td><td>侧边栏、补充信息</td></tr><tr><td><code>&lt;footer&gt;</code></td><td>页面或区块的底部</td></tr></tbody></table><p>一句话：<strong>能用语义化标签就别用 <code>&lt;div&gt;</code></strong>。</p></section></section>
<section><h2>十、表单 <code>&lt;form&gt;</code><a href="#十表单-form"><span>#</span></a></h2><p>表单是网页收集用户输入的方式——登录框、搜索框、评论区都是表单。这是 Markdown 完全做不到的事。</p><div><div><div><figure><figcaption></figcaption><pre><code><div><div><div>1</div></div><div><span>&lt;</span><span>form</span><span> </span><span>action</span><span>=</span><span>"/submit"</span><span> </span><span>method</span><span>=</span><span>"post"</span><span>&gt;</span></div></div><div><div><div>2</div></div><div><span>  </span><span>&lt;!-- label 的 for 和 input 的 id 对应，点击文字也能聚焦输入框 --&gt;</span></div></div><div><div><div>3</div></div><div><span><span>  </span></span><span>&lt;</span><span>label</span><span> </span><span>for</span><span>=</span><span>"name"</span><span>&gt;昵称：&lt;/</span><span>label</span><span>&gt;</span></div></div><div><div><div>4</div></div><div><span><span>  </span></span><span>&lt;</span><span>input</span><span> </span><span>type</span><span>=</span><span>"text"</span><span> </span><span>id</span><span>=</span><span>"name"</span><span> </span><span>name</span><span>=</span><span>"name"</span><span> </span><span>placeholder</span><span>=</span><span>"请输入昵称"</span><span> </span><span>required</span><span>&gt;</span></div></div><div><div><div>5</div></div><div><span><span>  </span></span><span>&lt;</span><span>br</span><span>&gt;</span></div></div><div><div><div>6</div></div><div>
</div></div><div><div><div>7</div></div><div><span><span>  </span></span><span>&lt;</span><span>label</span><span> </span><span>for</span><span>=</span><span>"pwd"</span><span>&gt;密码：&lt;/</span><span>label</span><span>&gt;</span></div></div><div><div><div>8</div></div><div><span><span>  </span></span><span>&lt;</span><span>input</span><span> </span><span>type</span><span>=</span><span>"password"</span><span> </span><span>id</span><span>=</span><span>"pwd"</span><span> </span><span>name</span><span>=</span><span>"pwd"</span><span>&gt;</span></div></div><div><div><div>9</div></div><div><span><span>  </span></span><span>&lt;</span><span>br</span><span>&gt;</span></div></div><div><div><div>10</div></div><div>
</div></div><div><div><div>11</div></div><div><span><span>  </span></span><span>&lt;</span><span>label</span><span> </span><span>for</span><span>=</span><span>"email"</span><span>&gt;邮箱：&lt;/</span><span>label</span><span>&gt;</span></div></div><div><div><div>12</div></div><div><span><span>  </span></span><span>&lt;</span><span>input</span><span> </span><span>type</span><span>=</span><span>"email"</span><span> </span><span>id</span><span>=</span><span>"email"</span><span> </span><span>name</span><span>=</span><span>"email"</span><span>&gt;</span></div></div><div><div><div>13</div></div><div><span><span>  </span></span><span>&lt;</span><span>br</span><span>&gt;</span></div></div><div><div><div>14</div></div><div>
</div></div><div><div><div>15</div></div><div><span><span>  </span></span><span>&lt;</span><span>label</span><span>&gt;性别：&lt;/</span><span>label</span><span>&gt;</span></div></div><div><div><div>16</div></div><div><span><span>  </span></span><span>&lt;</span><span>input</span><span> </span><span>type</span><span>=</span><span>"radio"</span><span> </span><span>name</span><span>=</span><span>"gender"</span><span> </span><span>value</span><span>=</span><span>"m"</span><span> </span><span>checked</span><span>&gt; 男</span></div></div><div><div><div>17</div></div><div><span><span>  </span></span><span>&lt;</span><span>input</span><span> </span><span>type</span><span>=</span><span>"radio"</span><span> </span><span>name</span><span>=</span><span>"gender"</span><span> </span><span>value</span><span>=</span><span>"f"</span><span>&gt; 女</span></div></div><div><div><div>18</div></div><div><span><span>  </span></span><span>&lt;</span><span>br</span><span>&gt;</span></div></div><div><div><div>19</div></div><div>
</div></div><div><div><div>20</div></div><div><span><span>  </span></span><span>&lt;</span><span>label</span><span>&gt;爱好：&lt;/</span><span>label</span><span>&gt;</span></div></div><div><div><div>21</div></div><div><span><span>  </span></span><span>&lt;</span><span>input</span><span> </span><span>type</span><span>=</span><span>"checkbox"</span><span> </span><span>name</span><span>=</span><span>"hobby"</span><span> </span><span>value</span><span>=</span><span>"code"</span><span>&gt; 编程</span></div></div><div><div><div>22</div></div><div><span><span>  </span></span><span>&lt;</span><span>input</span><span> </span><span>type</span><span>=</span><span>"checkbox"</span><span> </span><span>name</span><span>=</span><span>"hobby"</span><span> </span><span>value</span><span>=</span><span>"music"</span><span>&gt; 音乐</span></div></div><div><div><div>23</div></div><div><span><span>  </span></span><span>&lt;</span><span>br</span><span>&gt;</span></div></div><div><div><div>24</div></div><div>
</div></div><div><div><div>25</div></div><div><span><span>  </span></span><span>&lt;</span><span>label</span><span> </span><span>for</span><span>=</span><span>"city"</span><span>&gt;城市：&lt;/</span><span>label</span><span>&gt;</span></div></div><div><div><div>26</div></div><div><span><span>  </span></span><span>&lt;</span><span>select</span><span> </span><span>id</span><span>=</span><span>"city"</span><span> </span><span>name</span><span>=</span><span>"city"</span><span>&gt;</span></div></div><div><div><div>27</div></div><div><span><span>    </span></span><span>&lt;</span><span>option</span><span> </span><span>value</span><span>=</span><span>"bj"</span><span>&gt;北京&lt;/</span><span>option</span><span>&gt;</span></div></div><div><div><div>28</div></div><div><span><span>    </span></span><span>&lt;</span><span>option</span><span> </span><span>value</span><span>=</span><span>"sh"</span><span> </span><span>selected</span><span>&gt;上海&lt;/</span><span>option</span><span>&gt;</span></div></div><div><div><div>29</div></div><div><span><span>    </span></span><span>&lt;</span><span>option</span><span> </span><span>value</span><span>=</span><span>"gz"</span><span>&gt;广州&lt;/</span><span>option</span><span>&gt;</span></div></div><div><div><div>30</div></div><div><span><span>  </span></span><span>&lt;/</span><span>select</span><span>&gt;</span></div></div><div><div><div>31</div></div><div><span><span>  </span></span><span>&lt;</span><span>br</span><span>&gt;</span></div></div><div><div><div>32</div></div><div>
</div></div><div><div><div>33</div></div><div><span><span>  </span></span><span>&lt;</span><span>label</span><span> </span><span>for</span><span>=</span><span>"msg"</span><span>&gt;留言：&lt;/</span><span>label</span><span>&gt;</span></div></div><div><div><div>34</div></div><div><span><span>  </span></span><span>&lt;</span><span>textarea</span><span> </span><span>id</span><span>=</span><span>"msg"</span><span> </span><span>name</span><span>=</span><span>"msg"</span><span> </span><span>rows</span><span>=</span><span>"3"</span><span> </span><span>placeholder</span><span>=</span><span>"想说点什么…"</span><span>&gt;&lt;/</span><span>textarea</span><span>&gt;</span></div></div><div><div><div>35</div></div><div><span><span>  </span></span><span>&lt;</span><span>br</span><span>&gt;</span></div></div><div><div><div>36</div></div><div>
</div></div><div><div><div>37</div></div><div><span><span>  </span></span><span>&lt;</span><span>button</span><span> </span><span>type</span><span>=</span><span>"submit"</span><span>&gt;提交&lt;/</span><span>button</span><span>&gt;</span></div></div><div><div><div>38</div></div><div><span><span>  </span></span><span>&lt;</span><span>button</span><span> </span><span>type</span><span>=</span><span>"reset"</span><span>&gt;重置&lt;/</span><span>button</span><span>&gt;</span></div></div><div><div><div>39</div></div><div><span>&lt;/</span><span>form</span><span>&gt;</span></div></div></code></pre><div><div></div><div></div></div></figure><div></div></div><span>展开</span><span>收起</span></div></div>
👀 点击查看效果（可以试着操作）

  昵称：
  
  <br />
  密码：
  
  <br />
  邮箱：
  
  <br />
  性别：
   男
   女
  <br />
  爱好：
   编程
   音乐
  <br />
  城市：

    

  <br />
  留言：
  
  <br />
  提交
  重置

<p>常用的 <code>&lt;input type="..."&gt;</code>：</p>

<table><thead><tr><th>type</th><th>说明</th></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td><code>text</code></td><td>单行文本（默认）</td></tr><tr><td><code>password</code></td><td>密码，输入显示为圆点</td></tr><tr><td><code>email</code> / <code>url</code> / <code>tel</code></td><td>带格式校验的文本框</td></tr><tr><td><code>number</code></td><td>数字，可用 <code>min</code> / <code>max</code> / <code>step</code> 限制</td></tr><tr><td><code>radio</code></td><td>单选，同一组的 <code>name</code> 要相同</td></tr><tr><td><code>checkbox</code></td><td>多选</td></tr><tr><td><code>date</code> / <code>time</code></td><td>日期 / 时间选择器</td></tr><tr><td><code>file</code></td><td>文件上传</td></tr><tr><td><code>submit</code> / <code>reset</code></td><td>提交 / 重置按钮</td></tr></tbody></table><div><div><div></div><div>Note</div></div><div><p><code>&lt;form&gt;</code> 的两个关键属性：<code>action</code> 指定数据提交到哪个地址，<code>method</code> 指定提交方式（<code>get</code> 把数据拼在网址上，<code>post</code> 放在请求体里）。</p></div></div></section>
<section><h2>十一、多媒体<a href="#十一多媒体"><span>#</span></a></h2><div><figure><figcaption></figcaption><pre><code><div><div><div>1</div></div><div><span>&lt;!-- 音频：controls 显示播放控件 --&gt;</span></div></div><div><div><div>2</div></div><div><span>&lt;</span><span>audio</span><span> </span><span>src</span><span>=</span><span>"music.mp3"</span><span> </span><span>controls</span><span>&gt;&lt;/</span><span>audio</span><span>&gt;</span></div></div><div><div><div>3</div></div><div>
</div></div><div><div><div>4</div></div><div><span>&lt;!-- 视频：可指定宽度、自动播放（autoplay）、循环（loop）、静音（muted） --&gt;</span></div></div><div><div><div>5</div></div><div><span>&lt;</span><span>video</span><span> </span><span>src</span><span>=</span><span>"movie.mp4"</span><span> </span><span>controls</span><span> </span><span>width</span><span>=</span><span>"400"</span><span>&gt;&lt;/</span><span>video</span><span>&gt;</span></div></div><div><div><div>6</div></div><div>
</div></div><div><div><div>7</div></div><div><span>&lt;!-- 内嵌另一个网页，常用于嵌入地图、B 站视频等 --&gt;</span></div></div><div><div><div>8</div></div><div><span>&lt;</span><span>iframe</span><span> </span><span>src</span><span>=</span><span>"https://example.com"</span><span> </span><span>width</span><span>=</span><span>"600"</span><span> </span><span>height</span><span>=</span><span>"400"</span><span>&gt;&lt;/</span><span>iframe</span><span>&gt;</span></div></div></code></pre><div><div></div><div></div></div></figure></div></section>
<section><h2>十二、特殊字符（HTML 实体）<a href="#十二特殊字符html-实体"><span>#</span></a></h2><p>有些字符在 HTML 里有特殊含义（比如 <code>&lt;</code> 会被当成标签开头），想直接显示它们就要用”实体”写法：</p>

<table><thead><tr><th>想显示</th><th>要写成</th><th>说明</th></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td><code>&lt;</code></td><td><code>&amp;lt;</code></td><td>less than</td></tr><tr><td><code>&gt;</code></td><td><code>&amp;gt;</code></td><td>greater than</td></tr><tr><td><code>&amp;</code></td><td><code>&amp;amp;</code></td><td>ampersand</td></tr><tr><td><code>"</code></td><td><code>&amp;quot;</code></td><td>quote</td></tr><tr><td>空格</td><td><code>&amp;nbsp;</code></td><td>不会被合并的空格</td></tr><tr><td>©</td><td><code>&amp;copy;</code></td><td>版权符号</td></tr><tr><td>← →</td><td><code>&amp;larr;</code> <code>&amp;rarr;</code></td><td>箭头</td></tr><tr><td>❤</td><td><code>&amp;hearts;</code></td><td>爱心</td></tr></tbody></table><div><figure><figcaption></figcaption><pre><code><div><div><div>1</div></div><div><span>&lt;</span><span>p</span><span>&gt;在 HTML 中显示 </span><span>&amp;lt;</span><span>p</span><span>&amp;gt;</span><span> 标签需要用实体。&lt;/</span><span>p</span><span>&gt;</span></div></div><div><div><div>2</div></div><div><span>&lt;</span><span>p</span><span>&gt;</span><span>&amp;copy;</span><span> 2026 我的博客 </span><span>&amp;hearts;</span><span>&lt;/</span><span>p</span><span>&gt;</span></div></div></code></pre><div><div></div><div></div></div></figure></div><p>效果：</p><p>在 HTML 中显示 &lt;p&gt; 标签需要用实体。</p>
<p>© 2026 我的博客 ♥</p></section>
<section><h2>十三、Markdown ↔ HTML 速查表<a href="#十三markdown--html-速查表"><span>#</span></a></h2>

<table><thead><tr><th>你想要</th><th>Markdown</th><th>HTML</th></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td>标题</td><td><code># 标题</code></td><td><code>&lt;h1&gt;标题&lt;/h1&gt;</code></td></tr><tr><td>段落</td><td>空一行</td><td><code>&lt;p&gt;…&lt;/p&gt;</code></td></tr><tr><td>换行</td><td>行尾两个空格</td><td><code>&lt;br&gt;</code></td></tr><tr><td>加粗</td><td><code>**文字**</code></td><td><code>&lt;strong&gt;文字&lt;/strong&gt;</code></td></tr><tr><td>斜体</td><td><code>*文字*</code></td><td><code>&lt;em&gt;文字&lt;/em&gt;</code></td></tr><tr><td>删除线</td><td><code>~~文字~~</code></td><td><code>&lt;s&gt;文字&lt;/s&gt;</code></td></tr><tr><td>行内代码</td><td><code>`code`</code></td><td><code>&lt;code&gt;code&lt;/code&gt;</code></td></tr><tr><td>代码块</td><td><code>```</code> 包裹</td><td><code>&lt;pre&gt;&lt;code&gt;…&lt;/code&gt;&lt;/pre&gt;</code></td></tr><tr><td>引用</td><td><code>&gt; 文字</code></td><td><code>&lt;blockquote&gt;文字&lt;/blockquote&gt;</code></td></tr><tr><td>无序列表</td><td><code>- 项目</code></td><td><code>&lt;ul&gt;&lt;li&gt;项目&lt;/li&gt;&lt;/ul&gt;</code></td></tr><tr><td>有序列表</td><td><code>1. 项目</code></td><td><code>&lt;ol&gt;&lt;li&gt;项目&lt;/li&gt;&lt;/ol&gt;</code></td></tr><tr><td>链接</td><td><code>[文字](url)</code></td><td><code>&lt;a href="url"&gt;文字&lt;/a&gt;</code></td></tr><tr><td>图片</td><td><code>![alt](src)</code></td><td><code>&lt;img src="src" alt="alt"&gt;</code></td></tr><tr><td>分割线</td><td><code>---</code></td><td><code>&lt;hr&gt;</code></td></tr><tr><td>表格</td><td><code>| a | b |</code></td><td><code>&lt;table&gt;&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;…</code></td></tr><tr><td>表单、视频、合并单元格、下划线、高亮…</td><td>❌ 没有</td><td>✅ 直接写 HTML</td></tr></tbody></table></section>
<section><h2>十四、完整示例：一个个人主页<a href="#十四完整示例一个个人主页"><span>#</span></a></h2><p>把前面学的东西全部用上，这是一个完整的、可以直接保存运行的个人主页：</p><div><div><div><figure><figcaption><span>homepage.html</span><span>展开</span><span>收起</span></figcaption><pre><code><div><div><div>1</div></div><div><span>&lt;!</span><span>DOCTYPE</span><span> </span><span>html</span><span>&gt;</span></div></div><div><div><div>2</div></div><div><span>&lt;</span><span>html</span><span> </span><span>lang</span><span>=</span><span>"zh-CN"</span><span>&gt;</span></div></div><div><div><div>3</div></div><div><span>&lt;</span><span>head</span><span>&gt;</span></div></div><div><div><div>4</div></div><div><span><span>  </span></span><span>&lt;</span><span>meta</span><span> </span><span>charset</span><span>=</span><span>"UTF-8"</span><span>&gt;</span></div></div><div><div><div>5</div></div><div><span><span>  </span></span><span>&lt;</span><span>meta</span><span> </span><span>name</span><span>=</span><span>"viewport"</span><span> </span><span>content</span><span>=</span><span>"width=device-width, initial-scale=1.0"</span><span>&gt;</span></div></div><div><div><div>6</div></div><div><span><span>  </span></span><span>&lt;</span><span>title</span><span>&gt;ELEC 的个人主页&lt;/</span><span>title</span><span>&gt;</span></div></div><div><div><div>7</div></div><div><span>&lt;/</span><span>head</span><span>&gt;</span></div></div><div><div><div>8</div></div><div><span>&lt;</span><span>body</span><span>&gt;</span></div></div><div><div><div>9</div></div><div><span><span>  </span></span><span>&lt;</span><span>header</span><span>&gt;</span></div></div><div><div><div>10</div></div><div><span><span>    </span></span><span>&lt;</span><span>h1</span><span>&gt;你好，我是 ELEC 👋&lt;/</span><span>h1</span><span>&gt;</span></div></div><div><div><div>11</div></div><div><span><span>    </span></span><span>&lt;</span><span>p</span><span>&gt;一个正在学习前端的博主&lt;/</span><span>p</span><span>&gt;</span></div></div><div><div><div>12</div></div><div><span><span>  </span></span><span>&lt;/</span><span>header</span><span>&gt;</span></div></div><div><div><div>13</div></div><div>
</div></div><div><div><div>14</div></div><div><span><span>  </span></span><span>&lt;</span><span>nav</span><span>&gt;</span></div></div><div><div><div>15</div></div><div><span><span>    </span></span><span>&lt;</span><span>a</span><span> </span><span>href</span><span>=</span><span>"#about"</span><span>&gt;关于我&lt;/</span><span>a</span><span>&gt; |</span></div></div><div><div><div>16</div></div><div><span><span>    </span></span><span>&lt;</span><span>a</span><span> </span><span>href</span><span>=</span><span>"#skills"</span><span>&gt;技能&lt;/</span><span>a</span><span>&gt; |</span></div></div><div><div><div>17</div></div><div><span><span>    </span></span><span>&lt;</span><span>a</span><span> </span><span>href</span><span>=</span><span>"#contact"</span><span>&gt;联系&lt;/</span><span>a</span><span>&gt;</span></div></div><div><div><div>18</div></div><div><span><span>  </span></span><span>&lt;/</span><span>nav</span><span>&gt;</span></div></div><div><div><div>19</div></div><div>
</div></div><div><div><div>20</div></div><div><span><span>  </span></span><span>&lt;</span><span>hr</span><span>&gt;</span></div></div><div><div><div>21</div></div><div>
</div></div><div><div><div>22</div></div><div><span><span>  </span></span><span>&lt;</span><span>main</span><span>&gt;</span></div></div><div><div><div>23</div></div><div><span><span>    </span></span><span>&lt;</span><span>section</span><span> </span><span>id</span><span>=</span><span>"about"</span><span>&gt;</span></div></div><div><div><div>24</div></div><div><span><span>      </span></span><span>&lt;</span><span>h2</span><span>&gt;关于我&lt;/</span><span>h2</span><span>&gt;</span></div></div><div><div><div>25</div></div><div><span><span>      </span></span><span>&lt;</span><span>img</span><span> </span><span>src</span><span>=</span><span>"avatar.png"</span><span> </span><span>alt</span><span>=</span><span>"我的头像"</span><span> </span><span>width</span><span>=</span><span>"100"</span><span>&gt;</span></div></div><div><div><div>26</div></div><div><span><span>      </span></span><span>&lt;</span><span>p</span><span>&gt;我喜欢用 &lt;</span><span>strong</span><span>&gt;Astro&lt;/</span><span>strong</span><span>&gt; 写博客，用 &lt;</span><span>em</span><span>&gt;Markdown&lt;/</span><span>em</span><span>&gt; 记笔记。&lt;/</span><span>p</span><span>&gt;</span></div></div><div><div><div>27</div></div><div><span><span>      </span></span><span>&lt;</span><span>blockquote</span><span>&gt;Stay hungry, stay foolish.&lt;/</span><span>blockquote</span><span>&gt;</span></div></div><div><div><div>28</div></div><div><span><span>    </span></span><span>&lt;/</span><span>section</span><span>&gt;</span></div></div><div><div><div>29</div></div><div>
</div></div><div><div><div>30</div></div><div><span><span>    </span></span><span>&lt;</span><span>section</span><span> </span><span>id</span><span>=</span><span>"skills"</span><span>&gt;</span></div></div><div><div><div>31</div></div><div><span><span>      </span></span><span>&lt;</span><span>h2</span><span>&gt;技能&lt;/</span><span>h2</span><span>&gt;</span></div></div><div><div><div>32</div></div><div><span><span>      </span></span><span>&lt;</span><span>table</span><span>&gt;</span></div></div><div><div><div>33</div></div><div><span><span>        </span></span><span>&lt;</span><span>tr</span><span>&gt;&lt;</span><span>th</span><span>&gt;技能&lt;/</span><span>th</span><span>&gt;&lt;</span><span>th</span><span>&gt;熟练度&lt;/</span><span>th</span><span>&gt;&lt;/</span><span>tr</span><span>&gt;</span></div></div><div><div><div>34</div></div><div><span><span>        </span></span><span>&lt;</span><span>tr</span><span>&gt;&lt;</span><span>td</span><span>&gt;HTML&lt;/</span><span>td</span><span>&gt;&lt;</span><span>td</span><span>&gt;⭐⭐⭐⭐&lt;/</span><span>td</span><span>&gt;&lt;/</span><span>tr</span><span>&gt;</span></div></div><div><div><div>35</div></div><div><span><span>        </span></span><span>&lt;</span><span>tr</span><span>&gt;&lt;</span><span>td</span><span>&gt;CSS&lt;/</span><span>td</span><span>&gt;&lt;</span><span>td</span><span>&gt;⭐⭐⭐&lt;/</span><span>td</span><span>&gt;&lt;/</span><span>tr</span><span>&gt;</span></div></div><div><div><div>36</div></div><div><span><span>        </span></span><span>&lt;</span><span>tr</span><span>&gt;&lt;</span><span>td</span><span>&gt;JavaScript&lt;/</span><span>td</span><span>&gt;&lt;</span><span>td</span><span>&gt;⭐⭐&lt;/</span><span>td</span><span>&gt;&lt;/</span><span>tr</span><span>&gt;</span></div></div><div><div><div>37</div></div><div><span><span>      </span></span><span>&lt;/</span><span>table</span><span>&gt;</span></div></div><div><div><div>38</div></div><div><span><span>    </span></span><span>&lt;/</span><span>section</span><span>&gt;</span></div></div><div><div><div>39</div></div><div>
</div></div><div><div><div>40</div></div><div><span><span>    </span></span><span>&lt;</span><span>section</span><span> </span><span>id</span><span>=</span><span>"contact"</span><span>&gt;</span></div></div><div><div><div>41</div></div><div><span><span>      </span></span><span>&lt;</span><span>h2</span><span>&gt;联系我&lt;/</span><span>h2</span><span>&gt;</span></div></div><div><div><div>42</div></div><div><span><span>      </span></span><span>&lt;</span><span>form</span><span> </span><span>action</span><span>=</span><span>"/contact"</span><span> </span><span>method</span><span>=</span><span>"post"</span><span>&gt;</span></div></div><div><div><div>43</div></div><div><span><span>        </span></span><span>&lt;</span><span>label</span><span> </span><span>for</span><span>=</span><span>"email"</span><span>&gt;你的邮箱：&lt;/</span><span>label</span><span>&gt;</span></div></div><div><div><div>44</div></div><div><span><span>        </span></span><span>&lt;</span><span>input</span><span> </span><span>type</span><span>=</span><span>"email"</span><span> </span><span>id</span><span>=</span><span>"email"</span><span> </span><span>name</span><span>=</span><span>"email"</span><span> </span><span>required</span><span>&gt;</span></div></div><div><div><div>45</div></div><div><span><span>        </span></span><span>&lt;</span><span>br</span><span>&gt;</span></div></div><div><div><div>46</div></div><div><span><span>        </span></span><span>&lt;</span><span>label</span><span> </span><span>for</span><span>=</span><span>"msg"</span><span>&gt;留言：&lt;/</span><span>label</span><span>&gt;</span></div></div><div><div><div>47</div></div><div><span><span>        </span></span><span>&lt;</span><span>textarea</span><span> </span><span>id</span><span>=</span><span>"msg"</span><span> </span><span>name</span><span>=</span><span>"msg"</span><span> </span><span>rows</span><span>=</span><span>"3"</span><span>&gt;&lt;/</span><span>textarea</span><span>&gt;</span></div></div><div><div><div>48</div></div><div><span><span>        </span></span><span>&lt;</span><span>br</span><span>&gt;</span></div></div><div><div><div>49</div></div><div><span><span>        </span></span><span>&lt;</span><span>button</span><span> </span><span>type</span><span>=</span><span>"submit"</span><span>&gt;发送&lt;/</span><span>button</span><span>&gt;</span></div></div><div><div><div>50</div></div><div><span><span>      </span></span><span>&lt;/</span><span>form</span><span>&gt;</span></div></div><div><div><div>51</div></div><div><span><span>    </span></span><span>&lt;/</span><span>section</span><span>&gt;</span></div></div><div><div><div>52</div></div><div><span><span>  </span></span><span>&lt;/</span><span>main</span><span>&gt;</span></div></div><div><div><div>53</div></div><div>
</div></div><div><div><div>54</div></div><div><span><span>  </span></span><span>&lt;</span><span>footer</span><span>&gt;</span></div></div><div><div><div>55</div></div><div><span><span>    </span></span><span>&lt;</span><span>p</span><span>&gt;&lt;</span><span>small</span><span>&gt;</span><span>&amp;copy;</span><span> 2026 ELEC · 用 &lt;</span><span>a</span><span> </span><span>href</span><span>=</span><span>"https://astro.build"</span><span>&gt;Astro&lt;/</span><span>a</span><span>&gt; 搭建&lt;/</span><span>small</span><span>&gt;&lt;/</span><span>p</span><span>&gt;</span></div></div><div><div><div>56</div></div><div><span><span>  </span></span><span>&lt;/</span><span>footer</span><span>&gt;</span></div></div><div><div><div>57</div></div><div><span>&lt;/</span><span>body</span><span>&gt;</span></div></div><div><div><div>58</div></div><div><span>&lt;/</span><span>html</span><span>&gt;</span></div></div></code></pre><div><div></div><div></div></div></figure><div></div></div><span>展开</span><span>收起</span></div></div><div><div><div></div><div>动手试试</div></div><div><p>新建一个文本文件，粘贴上面的代码，保存为 <code>homepage.html</code>，用浏览器打开。然后试着改一改文字、加几行自己的内容——这是学 HTML 最快的方法。</p></div></div></section>
<section><h2>十五、初学者常犯的错误<a href="#十五初学者常犯的错误"><span>#</span></a></h2><ol>
<li><strong>忘记关闭标签</strong>：<code>&lt;p&gt;段落</code> 后面没有 <code>&lt;/p&gt;</code>。浏览器通常会”猜”，但排版可能乱掉。</li>
<li><strong>属性值不加引号</strong>：<code>&lt;a href=https://a.com&gt;</code> 能跑，但遇到空格就出错。请一律加引号。</li>
<li><strong>用 <code>&lt;br&gt;</code> 控制间距</strong>：连敲五个 <code>&lt;br&gt;</code> 来”空几行”是错的，间距应该交给 CSS。</li>
<li><strong>用 <code>&lt;table&gt;</code> 做页面布局</strong>：表格只用来放表格数据，布局用 CSS。</li>
<li><strong>忘记 <code>&lt;meta charset="UTF-8"&gt;</code></strong>：中文乱码九成是这个原因。</li>
<li><strong>图片没写 <code>alt</code></strong>：图片挂了用户什么都看不到。</li>
</ol></section>
<section><h2>小结<a href="#小结"><span>#</span></a></h2><p>回顾一下这篇文章覆盖的内容：</p><ul>
<li>HTML 由 <strong>标签</strong> 组成，标签 + 内容 = <strong>元素</strong>，标签上可以挂 <strong>属性</strong></li>
<li>一个页面的骨架：<code>&lt;!DOCTYPE html&gt;</code> → <code>&lt;html&gt;</code> → <code>&lt;head&gt;</code> + <code>&lt;body&gt;</code></li>
<li>文本：<code>h1~h6</code>、<code>p</code>、<code>br</code>、<code>hr</code>、<code>strong</code>、<code>em</code>、<code>blockquote</code>、<code>code</code></li>
<li>结构：<code>ul</code> / <code>ol</code> / <code>li</code>、<code>table</code> / <code>tr</code> / <code>td</code>、<code>div</code> / <code>span</code> 及语义化标签</li>
<li>功能：<code>a</code> 链接、<code>img</code> 图片、<code>form</code> 表单、<code>audio</code> / <code>video</code> 多媒体</li>
<li>Markdown 是 HTML 的速记法，<strong>Markdown 里可以随时混写 HTML</strong></li>
</ul><p>学会了 HTML，你就掌握了网页的”骨架”。下一步自然是学 <strong>CSS</strong> 给它”穿衣服”，再学 <strong>JavaScript</strong> 让它”动起来”。</p><div><div><div></div><div>推荐练习</div></div><div><p>试着把你的一篇 Markdown 博文，<strong>手动翻译</strong>成完整的 HTML 文件。翻译完你会发现，HTML 其实一点也不难。</p></div></div></section>]]></content>
    </entry>
    <entry>
      <id>https://gsxbxsg.github.io/posts/gaoshu-05-indefinite/</id>
      <title type="text">高数速成复习 05：不定积分</title>
      <published>2026-10-04T00:00:00.000Z</published>
      <updated>2026-10-04T00:00:00.000Z</updated>
      <author><name>ELEC</name></author>
      <link rel="alternate" href="https://gsxbxsg.github.io/posts/gaoshu-05-indefinite/"/>
      <summary type="text">不定积分是定积分、微分方程、多元积分的计算基础。本篇讲清原函数的存在性，以及凑微分、三角代换、根式代换、分部积分、有理函数和三角有理式积分的套路。</summary>
      <content type="html"><![CDATA[<p>不定积分单独出大题的情况不多，但后面的定积分、微分方程、重积分、曲线曲面积分，最后都要落到“求原函数”上。这一章的目标是：<strong>看到被积函数，知道该用哪种方法</strong>，并且算得又快又准。</p>
<section><h2>一、本章地图<a href="#一本章地图"><span>#</span></a></h2>

<table><thead><tr><th>模块</th><th>要掌握什么</th><th>常见考法</th></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td>原函数概念</td><td>原函数存在性、不定积分与导数互逆</td><td>选择题</td></tr><tr><td>基本积分表</td><td>约 20 个公式</td><td>基本功</td></tr><tr><td>第一换元（凑微分）</td><td>常见凑微分形式</td><td>所有积分题</td></tr><tr><td>第二换元</td><td>三角代换、根式代换、倒代换</td><td>解答题</td></tr><tr><td>分部积分</td><td>“反对幂指三”、表格法、循环积分</td><td>解答题</td></tr><tr><td>有理函数积分</td><td>部分分式分解</td><td>解答题</td></tr><tr><td>三角有理式</td><td>恒等变形、万能代换</td><td>解答题</td></tr><tr><td>分段函数</td><td>原函数要连续</td><td>选择、解答</td></tr></tbody></table><p>拿到一个积分，按下面的顺序考虑：</p><div><div><div><div><span></span></div><div><span><p>能</p></span></div><div><span><p>不能</p></span></div><div><span><p>有</p></span></div><div><span><p>没有</p></span></div><div><span><p>√(a²−x²) 等</p></span></div><div><span><p>ⁿ√(ax+b) 等</p></span></div><div><span><p>没有</p></span></div><div><span><p>是</p></span></div><div><span><p>否</p></span></div><div><span><p>拿到积分</p></span></div><div><span><p>能拆项或恒等变形？</p></span></div><div><span><p>拆开后套基本积分表</p></span></div><div><span><p>有 f(□)·□' 的结构？</p></span></div><div><span><p>凑微分</p></span></div><div><span><p>含根式？</p></span></div><div><span><p>三角代换</p></span></div><div><span><p>根式代换</p></span></div><div><span><p>两类函数相乘？</p></span></div><div><span><p>分部积分</p></span></div><div><span><p>有理函数 → 部分分式<br /><br />三角有理式 → 恒等变形或万能代换</p></span></div>
</div><div><div><span></span></div><div><span><p>能</p></span></div><div><span><p>不能</p></span></div><div><span><p>有</p></span></div><div><span><p>没有</p></span></div><div><span><p>√(a²−x²) 等</p></span></div><div><span><p>ⁿ√(ax+b) 等</p></span></div><div><span><p>没有</p></span></div><div><span><p>是</p></span></div><div><span><p>否</p></span></div><div><span><p>拿到积分</p></span></div><div><span><p>能拆项或恒等变形？</p></span></div><div><span><p>拆开后套基本积分表</p></span></div><div><span><p>有 f(□)·□' 的结构？</p></span></div><div><span><p>凑微分</p></span></div><div><span><p>含根式？</p></span></div><div><span><p>三角代换</p></span></div><div><span><p>根式代换</p></span></div><div><span><p>两类函数相乘？</p></span></div><div><span><p>分部积分</p></span></div><div><span><p>有理函数 → 部分分式<br /><br />三角有理式 → 恒等变形或万能代换</p></span></div>
</div></div></div></section>
<section><h2>二、核心概念<a href="#二核心概念"><span>#</span></a></h2><section><h3>1. 原函数与不定积分<a href="#1-原函数与不定积分"><span>#</span></a></h3><p>若在区间 <span><span>II</span><span><span><span></span><span>I</span></span></span></span> 上 <span><span>F′(x)=f(x)F'(x)=f(x)</span><span><span><span></span><span><span>F</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span>′</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span>(</span><span>x</span><span>)</span><span></span><span>=</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>f</span><span>(</span><span>x</span><span>)</span></span></span></span>，称 <span><span>FF</span><span><span><span></span><span>F</span></span></span></span> 是 <span><span>ff</span><span><span><span></span><span>f</span></span></span></span> 的一个<strong>原函数</strong>。<span><span>ff</span><span><span><span></span><span>f</span></span></span></span> 的全体原函数称为<strong>不定积分</strong>：</p><span><span><span>∫f(x) dx=F(x)+C.\int f(x)\,\mathrm dx=F(x)+C.</span><span><span><span></span><span>∫</span><span></span><span>f</span><span>(</span><span>x</span><span>)</span><span></span><span>d</span><span>x</span><span></span><span>=</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>F</span><span>(</span><span>x</span><span>)</span><span></span><span>+</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>C</span><span>.</span></span></span></span></span><p>同一个函数的两个原函数只差一个常数（由第 03 篇的推论：导数相同的函数只差常数）。</p></section><section><h3>2. 积分与求导互逆<a href="#2-积分与求导互逆"><span>#</span></a></h3><span><span><span>[∫f(x) dx]′=f(x),∫F′(x) dx=F(x)+C.\left[\int f(x)\,\mathrm dx\right]'=f(x),\qquad\int F'(x)\,\mathrm dx=F(x)+C.</span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span><span>[</span></span><span>∫</span><span></span><span>f</span><span>(</span><span>x</span><span>)</span><span></span><span>d</span><span>x</span><span><span>]</span></span></span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span>′</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span><span>=</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>f</span><span>(</span><span>x</span><span>)</span><span>,</span><span></span><span></span><span>∫</span><span></span><span><span>F</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span>′</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span>(</span><span>x</span><span>)</span><span></span><span>d</span><span>x</span><span></span><span>=</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>F</span><span>(</span><span>x</span><span>)</span><span></span><span>+</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>C</span><span>.</span></span></span></span></span><p>先积后导，原样不变；先导后积，要加 <span><span>CC</span><span><span><span></span><span>C</span></span></span></span>。</p></section><section><h3>3. 原函数存在性<a href="#3-原函数存在性"><span>#</span></a></h3><div><div><div></div><div>必背结论</div></div><div><ol>
<li>在区间 <span><span>II</span><span><span><span></span><span>I</span></span></span></span> 上<strong>连续</strong>的函数，一定有原函数。</li>
<li>在区间 <span><span>II</span><span><span><span></span><span>I</span></span></span></span> 内有<strong>第一类间断点</strong>（可去或跳跃）的函数，在 <span><span>II</span><span><span><span></span><span>I</span></span></span></span> 上<strong>没有</strong>原函数。</li>
<li>有<strong>第二类间断点</strong>的函数，可能有原函数，也可能没有。</li>
</ol></div></div><p>第 3 条的例子：<span><span>F(x)=x2sin⁡1xF(x)=x^2\sin\dfrac1x</span><span><span><span></span><span>F</span><span>(</span><span>x</span><span>)</span><span></span><span>=</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span>x</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>2</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span><span>sin</span><span></span><span><span></span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>x</span></span></span><span><span></span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span>1</span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span></span></span></span></span>（<span><span>F(0)=0F(0)=0</span><span><span><span></span><span>F</span><span>(</span><span>0</span><span>)</span><span></span><span>=</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>0</span></span></span></span>）处处可导，</p><span><span><span>F′(x)=f(x)={2xsin⁡1x−cos⁡1x,x≠00,x=0F'(x)=f(x)=\begin{cases}2x\sin\dfrac1x-\cos\dfrac1x,&amp;x\ne0\\[2mm]0,&amp;x=0\end{cases}</span><span><span><span></span><span><span>F</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span>′</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span>(</span><span>x</span><span>)</span><span></span><span>=</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>f</span><span>(</span><span>x</span><span>)</span><span></span><span>=</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>⎩</span></span></span><span><span></span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span>⎨</span></span></span><span><span></span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span>⎧</span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span><span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>2</span><span>x</span><span></span><span>sin</span><span></span><span><span></span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>x</span></span></span><span><span></span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span>1</span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span></span><span></span><span>−</span><span></span><span>cos</span><span></span><span><span></span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>x</span></span></span><span><span></span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span>1</span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span></span><span>,</span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span>0</span><span>,</span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>x</span><span></span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span><span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span><span>=</span></span><span></span><span>0</span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span>x</span><span></span><span>=</span><span></span><span>0</span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span></span></span></span></span></span><p><span><span>ff</span><span><span><span></span><span>f</span></span></span></span> 在 <span><span>x=0x=0</span><span><span><span></span><span>x</span><span></span><span>=</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>0</span></span></span></span> 处是第二类（振荡）间断点，但它有原函数 <span><span>FF</span><span><span><span></span><span>F</span></span></span></span>。这个例子在第 02 篇的易错点中出现过。</p></section><section><h3>4. 原函数与定积分的区别<a href="#4-原函数与定积分的区别"><span>#</span></a></h3><p>“有原函数”和“定积分存在（可积）”是两回事：</p><ul>
<li>有跳跃间断点的函数，没有原函数，但在闭区间上<strong>可积</strong>（第 06 篇详细讲）。</li>
<li>上面的 <span><span>f(x)f(x)</span><span><span><span></span><span>f</span><span>(</span><span>x</span><span>)</span></span></span></span> 有原函数，但它在 <span><span>00</span><span><span><span></span><span>0</span></span></span></span> 附近无界，这一点不影响原函数存在。</li>
</ul></section></section>
<section><h2>三、必背公式<a href="#三必背公式"><span>#</span></a></h2><section><h3>1. 基本积分表<a href="#1-基本积分表"><span>#</span></a></h3><span><span><span>∫xa dx=xa+1a+1+C (a≠−1)∫dxx=ln⁡∣x∣+C∫ax dx=axln⁡a+C∫ex dx=ex+C∫sin⁡x dx=−cos⁡x+C∫cos⁡x dx=sin⁡x+C∫tan⁡x dx=−ln⁡∣cos⁡x∣+C∫cot⁡x dx=ln⁡∣sin⁡x∣+C∫sec⁡x dx=ln⁡∣sec⁡x+tan⁡x∣+C∫csc⁡x dx=ln⁡∣csc⁡x−cot⁡x∣+C∫sec⁡2x dx=tan⁡x+C∫csc⁡2x dx=−cot⁡x+C∫sec⁡xtan⁡x dx=sec⁡x+C∫csc⁡xcot⁡x dx=−csc⁡x+C\begin{aligned}
&amp;\int x^a\,\mathrm dx=\frac{x^{a+1}}{a+1}+C\ (a\ne-1) &amp;&amp; \int\frac{\mathrm dx}{x}=\ln\lvert x\rvert+C\\
&amp;\int a^x\,\mathrm dx=\frac{a^x}{\ln a}+C &amp;&amp; \int e^x\,\mathrm dx=e^x+C\\
&amp;\int\sin x\,\mathrm dx=-\cos x+C &amp;&amp; \int\cos x\,\mathrm dx=\sin x+C\\
&amp;\int\tan x\,\mathrm dx=-\ln\lvert\cos x\rvert+C &amp;&amp; \int\cot x\,\mathrm dx=\ln\lvert\sin x\rvert+C\\
&amp;\int\sec x\,\mathrm dx=\ln\lvert\sec x+\tan x\rvert+C &amp;&amp; \int\csc x\,\mathrm dx=\ln\lvert\csc x-\cot x\rvert+C\\
&amp;\int\sec^2x\,\mathrm dx=\tan x+C &amp;&amp; \int\csc^2x\,\mathrm dx=-\cot x+C\\
&amp;\int\sec x\tan x\,\mathrm dx=\sec x+C &amp;&amp; \int\csc x\cot x\,\mathrm dx=-\csc x+C
\end{aligned}</span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span></span><span></span><span>∫</span><span></span><span><span>x</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>a</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span><span>d</span><span>x</span><span></span><span>=</span><span></span><span><span></span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>a</span><span></span><span>+</span><span></span><span>1</span></span></span><span><span></span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span><span>x</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span>a</span><span>+</span><span>1</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span></span><span></span><span>+</span><span></span><span>C</span><span> </span><span>(</span><span>a</span><span></span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span><span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span><span>=</span></span><span></span><span>−</span><span>1</span><span>)</span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span></span><span></span><span>∫</span><span></span><span><span>a</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>x</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span><span>d</span><span>x</span><span></span><span>=</span><span></span><span><span></span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>ln</span><span></span><span>a</span></span></span><span><span></span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span><span>a</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>x</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span></span><span></span><span>+</span><span></span><span>C</span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span></span><span></span><span>∫</span><span></span><span>sin</span><span></span><span>x</span><span></span><span>d</span><span>x</span><span></span><span>=</span><span></span><span>−</span><span></span><span>cos</span><span></span><span>x</span><span></span><span>+</span><span></span><span>C</span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span></span><span></span><span>∫</span><span></span><span>tan</span><span></span><span>x</span><span></span><span>d</span><span>x</span><span></span><span>=</span><span></span><span>−</span><span></span><span>ln</span><span>∣</span><span>cos</span><span></span><span>x</span><span>∣</span><span></span><span>+</span><span></span><span>C</span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span></span><span></span><span>∫</span><span></span><span>sec</span><span></span><span>x</span><span></span><span>d</span><span>x</span><span></span><span>=</span><span></span><span>ln</span><span>∣</span><span>sec</span><span></span><span>x</span><span></span><span>+</span><span></span><span>tan</span><span></span><span>x</span><span>∣</span><span></span><span>+</span><span></span><span>C</span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span></span><span></span><span>∫</span><span></span><span><span>sec</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>2</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span><span>x</span><span></span><span>d</span><span>x</span><span></span><span>=</span><span></span><span>tan</span><span></span><span>x</span><span></span><span>+</span><span></span><span>C</span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span></span><span></span><span>∫</span><span></span><span>sec</span><span></span><span>x</span><span></span><span>tan</span><span></span><span>x</span><span></span><span>d</span><span>x</span><span></span><span>=</span><span></span><span>sec</span><span></span><span>x</span><span></span><span>+</span><span></span><span>C</span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span></span><span></span><span>∫</span><span></span><span><span></span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>x</span></span></span><span><span></span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span>d</span><span>x</span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span></span><span></span><span>=</span><span></span><span>ln</span><span>∣</span><span>x</span><span>∣</span><span></span><span>+</span><span></span><span>C</span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span></span><span></span><span>∫</span><span></span><span><span>e</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>x</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span><span>d</span><span>x</span><span></span><span>=</span><span></span><span><span>e</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>x</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span><span>+</span><span></span><span>C</span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span></span><span></span><span>∫</span><span></span><span>cos</span><span></span><span>x</span><span></span><span>d</span><span>x</span><span></span><span>=</span><span></span><span>sin</span><span></span><span>x</span><span></span><span>+</span><span></span><span>C</span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span></span><span></span><span>∫</span><span></span><span>cot</span><span></span><span>x</span><span></span><span>d</span><span>x</span><span></span><span>=</span><span></span><span>ln</span><span>∣</span><span>sin</span><span></span><span>x</span><span>∣</span><span></span><span>+</span><span></span><span>C</span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span></span><span></span><span>∫</span><span></span><span>csc</span><span></span><span>x</span><span></span><span>d</span><span>x</span><span></span><span>=</span><span></span><span>ln</span><span>∣</span><span>csc</span><span></span><span>x</span><span></span><span>−</span><span></span><span>cot</span><span></span><span>x</span><span>∣</span><span></span><span>+</span><span></span><span>C</span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span></span><span></span><span>∫</span><span></span><span><span>csc</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>2</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span><span>x</span><span></span><span>d</span><span>x</span><span></span><span>=</span><span></span><span>−</span><span></span><span>cot</span><span></span><span>x</span><span></span><span>+</span><span></span><span>C</span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span></span><span></span><span>∫</span><span></span><span>csc</span><span></span><span>x</span><span></span><span>cot</span><span></span><span>x</span><span></span><span>d</span><span>x</span><span></span><span>=</span><span></span><span>−</span><span></span><span>csc</span><span></span><span>x</span><span></span><span>+</span><span></span><span>C</span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><div><div><div></div><div>必背·含 <span><span>aa</span><span><span><span></span><span>a</span></span></span></span> 的公式（<span><span>a&gt;0a&gt;0</span><span><span><span></span><span>a</span><span></span><span>&gt;</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>0</span></span></span></span>）</div></div><div><p><span><span>∫dxa2+x2=1aarctan⁡xa+C∫dxx2−a2=12aln⁡∣x−ax+a∣+C\int\frac{\mathrm dx}{a^2+x^2}=\frac1a\arctan\frac xa+C\qquad\int\frac{\mathrm dx}{x^2-a^2}=\frac{1}{2a}\ln\left\lvert\frac{x-a}{x+a}\right\rvert+C</span><span><span><span></span><span>∫</span><span></span><span><span></span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span><span>a</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>2</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span>+</span><span><span>x</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>2</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span><span></span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span><span>d</span><span>x</span></span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span></span><span></span><span>=</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span></span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span>a</span></span></span></span><span><span></span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span><span>1</span></span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span></span><span></span><span>arctan</span><span></span><span><span></span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span>a</span></span></span></span><span><span></span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span><span>x</span></span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span></span><span></span><span>+</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>C</span><span></span><span></span><span>∫</span><span></span><span><span></span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span><span>x</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>2</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span>−</span><span><span>a</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>2</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span><span></span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span><span>d</span><span>x</span></span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span></span><span></span><span>=</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span></span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span>2</span><span>a</span></span></span></span><span><span></span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span><span>1</span></span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span></span><span></span><span>ln</span><span></span><span><span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span>x</span><span>+</span><span>a</span></span></span></span><span><span></span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span><span>x</span><span>−</span><span>a</span></span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span></span><span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span><span>+</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>C</span></span></span></span>
<span><span>∫dxa2−x2=arcsin⁡xa+C∫dxx2±a2=ln⁡∣x+x2±a2∣+C\int\frac{\mathrm dx}{\sqrt{a^2-x^2}}=\arcsin\frac xa+C\qquad\int\frac{\mathrm dx}{\sqrt{x^2\pm a^2}}=\ln\left\lvert x+\sqrt{x^2\pm a^2}\right\rvert+C</span><span><span><span></span><span>∫</span><span></span><span><span></span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span>a</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>2</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span>−</span><span><span>x</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>2</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span><span></span><span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span><span></span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span><span>d</span><span>x</span></span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span></span><span></span><span>=</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>arcsin</span><span></span><span><span></span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span>a</span></span></span></span><span><span></span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span><span>x</span></span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span></span><span></span><span>+</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>C</span><span></span><span></span><span>∫</span><span></span><span><span></span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span>x</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>2</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span>±</span><span><span>a</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>2</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span><span></span><span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span><span></span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span><span>d</span><span>x</span></span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span></span><span></span><span>=</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>ln</span><span></span><span><span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span>x</span><span></span><span>+</span><span></span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span>x</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>2</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span><span>±</span><span></span><span><span>a</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>2</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span><span></span><span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span><span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span><span>+</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>C</span></span></span></span>
<span><span>∫a2−x2 dx=a22arcsin⁡xa+x2a2−x2+C\int\sqrt{a^2-x^2}\,\mathrm dx=\frac{a^2}{2}\arcsin\frac xa+\frac x2\sqrt{a^2-x^2}+C</span><span><span><span></span><span>∫</span><span></span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span>a</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>2</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span><span>−</span><span></span><span><span>x</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>2</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span><span></span><span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span><span>d</span><span>x</span><span></span><span>=</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span></span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span>2</span></span></span></span><span><span></span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span><span><span>a</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>2</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span></span><span></span><span>arcsin</span><span></span><span><span></span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span>a</span></span></span></span><span><span></span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span><span>x</span></span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span></span><span></span><span>+</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span></span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span>2</span></span></span></span><span><span></span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span><span>x</span></span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span></span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span>a</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>2</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span><span>−</span><span></span><span><span>x</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>2</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span><span></span><span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span><span>+</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>C</span></span></span></span></p></div></div></section><section><h3>2. 常见凑微分形式<a href="#2-常见凑微分形式"><span>#</span></a></h3>

<table><thead><tr><th>被积函数中出现</th><th>凑成</th></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td><span><span>x dxx\,\mathrm dx</span><span><span><span></span><span>x</span><span></span><span>d</span><span>x</span></span></span></span></td><td><span><span>12 d(x2)\frac12\,\mathrm d(x^2)</span><span><span><span></span><span><span></span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span>2</span></span></span></span><span><span></span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span><span>1</span></span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span></span><span></span><span>d</span><span>(</span><span><span>x</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>2</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span>)</span></span></span></span></td></tr><tr><td><span><span>dxx\dfrac{\mathrm dx}{\sqrt x}</span><span><span><span></span><span><span></span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span>x</span></span><span><span></span><span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span><span></span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span>d</span><span>x</span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span></span></span></span></span></td><td><span><span>2 dx2\,\mathrm d\sqrt x</span><span><span><span></span><span>2</span><span></span><span>d</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span>x</span></span><span><span></span><span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></td></tr><tr><td><span><span>dxx2\dfrac{\mathrm dx}{x^2}</span><span><span><span></span><span><span></span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span>x</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>2</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span><span></span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span>d</span><span>x</span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span></span></span></span></span></td><td><span><span>−d(1x)-\mathrm d\left(\dfrac1x\right)</span><span><span><span></span><span>−</span><span>d</span><span></span><span><span><span>(</span></span><span><span></span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>x</span></span></span><span><span></span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span>1</span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span></span><span><span>)</span></span></span></span></span></span></td></tr><tr><td><span><span>dxx\dfrac{\mathrm dx}{x}</span><span><span><span></span><span><span></span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>x</span></span></span><span><span></span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span>d</span><span>x</span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span></span></span></span></span></td><td><span><span>d(ln⁡x)\mathrm d(\ln x)</span><span><span><span></span><span>d</span><span>(</span><span>ln</span><span></span><span>x</span><span>)</span></span></span></span></td></tr><tr><td><span><span>ex dxe^x\,\mathrm dx</span><span><span><span></span><span><span>e</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>x</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span><span>d</span><span>x</span></span></span></span></td><td><span><span>d(ex)\mathrm d(e^x)</span><span><span><span></span><span>d</span><span>(</span><span><span>e</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>x</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span>)</span></span></span></span></td></tr><tr><td><span><span>cos⁡x dx\cos x\,\mathrm dx</span><span><span><span></span><span>cos</span><span></span><span>x</span><span></span><span>d</span><span>x</span></span></span></span>、<span><span>sin⁡x dx\sin x\,\mathrm dx</span><span><span><span></span><span>sin</span><span></span><span>x</span><span></span><span>d</span><span>x</span></span></span></span></td><td><span><span>d(sin⁡x)\mathrm d(\sin x)</span><span><span><span></span><span>d</span><span>(</span><span>sin</span><span></span><span>x</span><span>)</span></span></span></span>、<span><span>−d(cos⁡x)-\mathrm d(\cos x)</span><span><span><span></span><span>−</span><span>d</span><span>(</span><span>cos</span><span></span><span>x</span><span>)</span></span></span></span></td></tr><tr><td><span><span>sec⁡2x dx\sec^2x\,\mathrm dx</span><span><span><span></span><span><span>sec</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>2</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span><span>x</span><span></span><span>d</span><span>x</span></span></span></span></td><td><span><span>d(tan⁡x)\mathrm d(\tan x)</span><span><span><span></span><span>d</span><span>(</span><span>tan</span><span></span><span>x</span><span>)</span></span></span></span></td></tr><tr><td><span><span>dx1+x2\dfrac{\mathrm dx}{1+x^2}</span><span><span><span></span><span><span></span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>1</span><span></span><span>+</span><span></span><span><span>x</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>2</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span><span></span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span>d</span><span>x</span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span></span></span></span></span></td><td><span><span>d(arctan⁡x)\mathrm d(\arctan x)</span><span><span><span></span><span>d</span><span>(</span><span>arctan</span><span></span><span>x</span><span>)</span></span></span></span></td></tr><tr><td><span><span>dx1−x2\dfrac{\mathrm dx}{\sqrt{1-x^2}}</span><span><span><span></span><span><span></span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>1</span><span></span><span>−</span><span></span><span><span>x</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>2</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span><span></span><span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span><span></span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span>d</span><span>x</span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span></span></span></span></span></td><td><span><span>d(arcsin⁡x)\mathrm d(\arcsin x)</span><span><span><span></span><span>d</span><span>(</span><span>arcsin</span><span></span><span>x</span><span>)</span></span></span></span></td></tr><tr><td><span><span>dx\mathrm dx</span><span><span><span></span><span>d</span><span>x</span></span></span></span></td><td><span><span>1a d(ax+b)\frac1a\,\mathrm d(ax+b)</span><span><span><span></span><span><span></span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span>a</span></span></span></span><span><span></span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span><span>1</span></span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span></span><span></span><span>d</span><span>(</span><span>a</span><span>x</span><span></span><span>+</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>b</span><span>)</span></span></span></span></td></tr></tbody></table></section><section><h3>3. 分部积分公式<a href="#3-分部积分公式"><span>#</span></a></h3><span><span><span>∫u dv=uv−∫v du.\int u\,\mathrm dv=uv-\int v\,\mathrm du.</span><span><span><span></span><span>∫</span><span></span><span>u</span><span></span><span>d</span><span>v</span><span></span><span>=</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>uv</span><span></span><span>−</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>∫</span><span></span><span>v</span><span></span><span>d</span><span>u</span><span>.</span></span></span></span></span></section><section><h3>4. 三种代换<a href="#4-三种代换"><span>#</span></a></h3>

<table><thead><tr><th>结构</th><th>代换</th><th>用到的恒等式</th></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td><span><span>a2−x2\sqrt{a^2-x^2}</span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span>a</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>2</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span><span>−</span><span></span><span><span>x</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>2</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span><span></span><span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></td><td><span><span>x=asin⁡tx=a\sin t</span><span><span><span></span><span>x</span><span></span><span>=</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>a</span><span></span><span>sin</span><span></span><span>t</span></span></span></span></td><td><span><span>1−sin⁡2t=cos⁡2t1-\sin^2t=\cos^2t</span><span><span><span></span><span>1</span><span></span><span>−</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span>sin</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>2</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span><span>t</span><span></span><span>=</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span>cos</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>2</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span><span>t</span></span></span></span></td></tr><tr><td><span><span>a2+x2\sqrt{a^2+x^2}</span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span>a</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>2</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span><span>+</span><span></span><span><span>x</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>2</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span><span></span><span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></td><td><span><span>x=atan⁡tx=a\tan t</span><span><span><span></span><span>x</span><span></span><span>=</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>a</span><span></span><span>tan</span><span></span><span>t</span></span></span></span></td><td><span><span>1+tan⁡2t=sec⁡2t1+\tan^2t=\sec^2t</span><span><span><span></span><span>1</span><span></span><span>+</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span>tan</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>2</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span><span>t</span><span></span><span>=</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span>sec</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>2</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span><span>t</span></span></span></span></td></tr><tr><td><span><span>x2−a2\sqrt{x^2-a^2}</span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span>x</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>2</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span><span>−</span><span></span><span><span>a</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>2</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span><span></span><span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></td><td><span><span>x=asec⁡tx=a\sec t</span><span><span><span></span><span>x</span><span></span><span>=</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>a</span><span></span><span>sec</span><span></span><span>t</span></span></span></span></td><td><span><span>sec⁡2t−1=tan⁡2t\sec^2t-1=\tan^2t</span><span><span><span></span><span><span>sec</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>2</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span><span>t</span><span></span><span>−</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>1</span><span></span><span>=</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span>tan</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>2</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span><span>t</span></span></span></span></td></tr><tr><td><span><span>ax+bn\sqrt[n]{ax+b}</span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span>n</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>a</span><span>x</span><span></span><span>+</span><span></span><span>b</span></span></span><span><span></span><span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span>、<span><span>ax+bcx+d\sqrt{\dfrac{ax+b}{cx+d}}</span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>c</span><span>x</span><span></span><span>+</span><span></span><span>d</span></span></span><span><span></span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span>a</span><span>x</span><span></span><span>+</span><span></span><span>b</span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span></span></span></span><span><span></span><span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></td><td>令整个根式 <span><span>=t=t</span><span><span><span></span><span>=</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>t</span></span></span></span></td><td>去掉根号</td></tr><tr><td>三角有理式 <span><span>R(sin⁡x,cos⁡x)R(\sin x,\cos x)</span><span><span><span></span><span>R</span><span>(</span><span>sin</span><span></span><span>x</span><span>,</span><span></span><span>cos</span><span></span><span>x</span><span>)</span></span></span></span></td><td><span><span>t=tan⁡x2t=\tan\dfrac x2</span><span><span><span></span><span>t</span><span></span><span>=</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>tan</span><span></span><span><span></span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>2</span></span></span><span><span></span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span>x</span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span></span></span></span></span></td><td><span><span>sin⁡x=2t1+t2\sin x=\dfrac{2t}{1+t^2}</span><span><span><span></span><span>sin</span><span></span><span>x</span><span></span><span>=</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span></span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>1</span><span></span><span>+</span><span></span><span><span>t</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>2</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span><span></span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span>2</span><span>t</span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span></span></span></span></span>，<span><span>cos⁡x=1−t21+t2\cos x=\dfrac{1-t^2}{1+t^2}</span><span><span><span></span><span>cos</span><span></span><span>x</span><span></span><span>=</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span></span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>1</span><span></span><span>+</span><span></span><span><span>t</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>2</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span><span></span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span>1</span><span></span><span>−</span><span></span><span><span>t</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>2</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span></span></span></span></span>，<span><span>dx=2 dt1+t2\mathrm dx=\dfrac{2\,\mathrm dt}{1+t^2}</span><span><span><span></span><span>d</span><span>x</span><span></span><span>=</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span></span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>1</span><span></span><span>+</span><span></span><span><span>t</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>2</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span><span></span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span>2</span><span></span><span>d</span><span>t</span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span></span></span></span></span></td></tr></tbody></table></section></section>
<section><h2>四、题型与解题套路<a href="#四题型与解题套路"><span>#</span></a></h2><section><h3>题型 1：凑微分（第一换元法）<a href="#题型-1凑微分第一换元法"><span>#</span></a></h3><p><strong>识别特征</strong>：被积函数可以写成 <span><span>f(φ(x))φ′(x)f\bigl(\varphi(x)\bigr)\varphi'(x)</span><span><span><span></span><span>f</span><span><span>(</span></span><span>φ</span><span>(</span><span>x</span><span>)</span><span><span>)</span></span><span><span>φ</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span>′</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span>(</span><span>x</span><span>)</span></span></span></span>，即“某个函数的复合”乘上“里层函数的导数”。</p><p><strong>解法</strong>：</p><span><span><span>∫f(φ(x))φ′(x) dx=∫f(u) du∣u=φ(x).\int f\bigl(\varphi(x)\bigr)\varphi'(x)\,\mathrm dx=\int f(u)\,\mathrm du\Big|_{u=\varphi(x)}.</span><span><span><span></span><span>∫</span><span></span><span>f</span><span><span>(</span></span><span>φ</span><span>(</span><span>x</span><span>)</span><span><span>)</span></span><span><span>φ</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span>′</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span>(</span><span>x</span><span>)</span><span></span><span>d</span><span>x</span><span></span><span>=</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>∫</span><span></span><span>f</span><span>(</span><span>u</span><span>)</span><span></span><span>d</span><span>u</span><span><span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span>u</span><span>=</span><span>φ</span><span>(</span><span>x</span><span>)</span></span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span>.</span></span></span></span></span><p><strong>例 1</strong> 求下列积分：</p><ol>
<li><span><span>∫x1+x2 dx\displaystyle\int\frac{x}{1+x^2}\,\mathrm dx</span><span><span><span></span><span>∫</span><span></span><span><span></span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>1</span><span></span><span>+</span><span></span><span><span>x</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>2</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span><span></span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span>x</span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span></span><span></span><span>d</span><span>x</span></span></span></span></li>
<li><span><span>∫dxx(1+ln⁡x)\displaystyle\int\frac{\mathrm dx}{x(1+\ln x)}</span><span><span><span></span><span>∫</span><span></span><span><span></span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>x</span><span>(</span><span>1</span><span></span><span>+</span><span></span><span>ln</span><span></span><span>x</span><span>)</span></span></span><span><span></span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span>d</span><span>x</span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span></span></span></span></span></li>
<li><span><span>∫exx dx\displaystyle\int\frac{e^{\sqrt x}}{\sqrt x}\,\mathrm dx</span><span><span><span></span><span>∫</span><span></span><span><span></span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span>x</span></span><span><span></span><span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span><span></span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span><span>e</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span>x</span></span><span><span></span><span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span></span><span></span><span>d</span><span>x</span></span></span></span></li>
</ol><p><strong>解</strong></p><ol>
<li><span><span>x dx=12 d(1+x2)x\,\mathrm dx=\frac12\,\mathrm d(1+x^2)</span><span><span><span></span><span>x</span><span></span><span>d</span><span>x</span><span></span><span>=</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span></span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span>2</span></span></span></span><span><span></span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span><span>1</span></span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span></span><span></span><span>d</span><span>(</span><span>1</span><span></span><span>+</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span>x</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>2</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span>)</span></span></span></span>，原式 <span><span>=12ln⁡(1+x2)+C=\dfrac12\ln(1+x^2)+C</span><span><span><span></span><span>=</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span></span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>2</span></span></span><span><span></span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span>1</span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span></span><span></span><span>ln</span><span>(</span><span>1</span><span></span><span>+</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span>x</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>2</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span>)</span><span></span><span>+</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>C</span></span></span></span>。</li>
<li><span><span>dxx=d(1+ln⁡x)\dfrac{\mathrm dx}{x}=\mathrm d(1+\ln x)</span><span><span><span></span><span><span></span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>x</span></span></span><span><span></span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span>d</span><span>x</span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span></span><span></span><span>=</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>d</span><span>(</span><span>1</span><span></span><span>+</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>ln</span><span></span><span>x</span><span>)</span></span></span></span>，原式 <span><span>=ln⁡∣1+ln⁡x∣+C=\ln\lvert1+\ln x\rvert+C</span><span><span><span></span><span>=</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>ln</span><span>∣</span><span>1</span><span></span><span>+</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>ln</span><span></span><span>x</span><span>∣</span><span></span><span>+</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>C</span></span></span></span>。</li>
<li><span><span>dxx=2 dx\dfrac{\mathrm dx}{\sqrt x}=2\,\mathrm d\sqrt x</span><span><span><span></span><span><span></span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span>x</span></span><span><span></span><span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span><span></span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span>d</span><span>x</span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span></span><span></span><span>=</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>2</span><span></span><span>d</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span>x</span></span><span><span></span><span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span>，原式 <span><span>=2ex+C=2e^{\sqrt x}+C</span><span><span><span></span><span>=</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>2</span><span><span>e</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span>x</span></span><span><span></span><span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span><span>+</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>C</span></span></span></span>。</li>
</ol><p><strong>例 2</strong> 求 <span><span>∫dxx2+2x+5\displaystyle\int\frac{\mathrm dx}{x^2+2x+5}</span><span><span><span></span><span>∫</span><span></span><span><span></span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span>x</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>2</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span><span>+</span><span></span><span>2</span><span>x</span><span></span><span>+</span><span></span><span>5</span></span></span><span><span></span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span>d</span><span>x</span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span></span></span></span></span>。</p><p><strong>解</strong> 二次式不能分解时，<strong>先配方</strong>：<span><span>x2+2x+5=(x+1)2+4x^2+2x+5=(x+1)^2+4</span><span><span><span></span><span><span>x</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>2</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span><span>+</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>2</span><span>x</span><span></span><span>+</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>5</span><span></span><span>=</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>(</span><span>x</span><span></span><span>+</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>1</span><span><span>)</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>2</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span><span>+</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>4</span></span></span></span>。</p><span><span><span>∫d(x+1)(x+1)2+22=12arctan⁡x+12+C.\int\frac{\mathrm d(x+1)}{(x+1)^2+2^2}=\boxed{\frac12\arctan\frac{x+1}{2}+C}.</span><span><span><span></span><span>∫</span><span></span><span><span></span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>(</span><span>x</span><span></span><span>+</span><span></span><span>1</span><span><span>)</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>2</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span><span>+</span><span></span><span><span>2</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>2</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span><span></span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span>d</span><span>(</span><span>x</span><span></span><span>+</span><span></span><span>1</span><span>)</span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span></span><span></span><span>=</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>2</span></span></span><span><span></span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span>1</span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span></span><span></span><span>arctan</span><span></span><span><span></span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>2</span></span></span><span><span></span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span>x</span><span></span><span>+</span><span></span><span>1</span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span></span><span></span><span>+</span><span></span><span>C</span></span></span></span></span><span><span></span><span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span><span>.</span></span></span></span></span><p><strong>例 3</strong> 求 <span><span>∫dx1+ex\displaystyle\int\frac{\mathrm dx}{1+e^x}</span><span><span><span></span><span>∫</span><span></span><span><span></span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>1</span><span></span><span>+</span><span></span><span><span>e</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>x</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span><span></span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span>d</span><span>x</span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span></span></span></span></span>。</p><p><strong>解</strong> 分子加一项减一项 <span><span>exe^x</span><span><span><span></span><span><span>e</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>x</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span>：</p><span><span><span>∫1+ex−ex1+ex dx=∫dx−∫d(1+ex)1+ex=x−ln⁡(1+ex)+C.\int\frac{1+e^x-e^x}{1+e^x}\,\mathrm dx=\int\mathrm dx-\int\frac{\mathrm d(1+e^x)}{1+e^x}=\boxed{x-\ln(1+e^x)+C}.</span><span><span><span></span><span>∫</span><span></span><span><span></span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>1</span><span></span><span>+</span><span></span><span><span>e</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>x</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span><span></span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span>1</span><span></span><span>+</span><span></span><span><span>e</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>x</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span><span>−</span><span></span><span><span>e</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>x</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span></span><span></span><span>d</span><span>x</span><span></span><span>=</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>∫</span><span></span><span>d</span><span>x</span><span></span><span>−</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>∫</span><span></span><span><span></span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>1</span><span></span><span>+</span><span></span><span><span>e</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>x</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span><span></span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span>d</span><span>(</span><span>1</span><span></span><span>+</span><span></span><span><span>e</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>x</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span>)</span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span></span><span></span><span>=</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span><span>x</span><span></span><span>−</span><span></span><span>ln</span><span>(</span><span>1</span><span></span><span>+</span><span></span><span><span>e</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>x</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span>)</span><span></span><span>+</span><span></span><span>C</span></span></span></span></span><span><span></span><span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span><span>.</span></span></span></span></span><div><div><div></div><div>凑微分的信号</div></div><div><p>被积函数里<strong>同时出现</strong> <span><span>φ(x)\varphi(x)</span><span><span><span></span><span>φ</span><span>(</span><span>x</span><span>)</span></span></span></span> 和 <span><span>φ′(x)\varphi'(x)</span><span><span><span></span><span><span>φ</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span>′</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span>(</span><span>x</span><span>)</span></span></span></span>，比如同时有 <span><span>ln⁡x\ln x</span><span><span><span></span><span>ln</span><span></span><span>x</span></span></span></span> 和 <span><span>1x\frac1x</span><span><span><span></span><span><span></span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span>x</span></span></span></span><span><span></span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span><span>1</span></span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span></span></span></span></span>、同时有 <span><span>arctan⁡x\arctan x</span><span><span><span></span><span>arctan</span><span></span><span>x</span></span></span></span> 和 <span><span>11+x2\frac{1}{1+x^2}</span><span><span><span></span><span><span></span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span>1</span><span>+</span><span><span>x</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>2</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span><span></span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span><span>1</span></span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span></span></span></span></span>，基本就是凑微分。</p></div></div></section><section><h3>题型 2：三角函数的积分<a href="#题型-2三角函数的积分"><span>#</span></a></h3><p><strong>解法</strong>：</p>

<table><thead><tr><th>形式</th><th>方法</th></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td><span><span>sin⁡mxcos⁡nx\sin^mx\cos^nx</span><span><span><span></span><span><span>sin</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>m</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span><span>x</span><span></span><span><span>cos</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>n</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span><span>x</span></span></span></span>，有一个是<strong>奇次</strong></td><td>拆出一个奇次的因子去凑微分，其余用 <span><span>sin⁡2+cos⁡2=1\sin^2+\cos^2=1</span><span><span><span></span><span><span>sin</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>2</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span><span>+</span><span></span><span><span>cos</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>2</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span><span>=</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>1</span></span></span></span> 化掉</td></tr><tr><td><span><span>sin⁡mxcos⁡nx\sin^mx\cos^nx</span><span><span><span></span><span><span>sin</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>m</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span><span>x</span><span></span><span><span>cos</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>n</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span><span>x</span></span></span></span>，<strong>都是偶次</strong></td><td>用倍角公式降次</td></tr><tr><td><span><span>sin⁡axcos⁡bx\sin ax\cos bx</span><span><span><span></span><span>sin</span><span></span><span>a</span><span>x</span><span></span><span>cos</span><span></span><span>b</span><span>x</span></span></span></span> 等</td><td>积化和差</td></tr><tr><td><span><span>tan⁡nx\tan^nx</span><span><span><span></span><span><span>tan</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>n</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span><span>x</span></span></span></span>、<span><span>sec⁡nx\sec^nx</span><span><span><span></span><span><span>sec</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>n</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span><span>x</span></span></span></span></td><td>用 <span><span>tan⁡2x=sec⁡2x−1\tan^2x=\sec^2x-1</span><span><span><span></span><span><span>tan</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>2</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span><span>x</span><span></span><span>=</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span>sec</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>2</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span><span>x</span><span></span><span>−</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>1</span></span></span></span>，凑 <span><span>d(tan⁡x)\mathrm d(\tan x)</span><span><span><span></span><span>d</span><span>(</span><span>tan</span><span></span><span>x</span><span>)</span></span></span></span></td></tr></tbody></table><p><strong>例 4</strong> 求 <span><span>∫sin⁡3x dx\displaystyle\int\sin^3x\,\mathrm dx</span><span><span><span></span><span>∫</span><span></span><span><span>sin</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>3</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span><span>x</span><span></span><span>d</span><span>x</span></span></span></span>。</p><p><strong>解</strong> 奇次，拆出一个 <span><span>sin⁡x\sin x</span><span><span><span></span><span>sin</span><span></span><span>x</span></span></span></span>：</p><span><span><span>∫sin⁡2x⋅sin⁡x dx=−∫(1−cos⁡2x) d(cos⁡x)=−cos⁡x+cos⁡3x3+C.\int\sin^2x\cdot\sin x\,\mathrm dx=-\int(1-\cos^2x)\,\mathrm d(\cos x)=\boxed{-\cos x+\frac{\cos^3x}{3}+C}.</span><span><span><span></span><span>∫</span><span></span><span><span>sin</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>2</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span><span>x</span><span></span><span>⋅</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>sin</span><span></span><span>x</span><span></span><span>d</span><span>x</span><span></span><span>=</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>−</span><span></span><span>∫</span><span>(</span><span>1</span><span></span><span>−</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span>cos</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>2</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span><span>x</span><span>)</span><span></span><span>d</span><span>(</span><span>cos</span><span></span><span>x</span><span>)</span><span></span><span>=</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span><span>−</span><span></span><span>cos</span><span></span><span>x</span><span></span><span>+</span><span></span><span><span></span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>3</span></span></span><span><span></span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span><span>cos</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>3</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span><span>x</span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span></span><span></span><span>+</span><span></span><span>C</span></span></span></span></span><span><span></span><span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span><span>.</span></span></span></span></span><p><strong>例 5</strong> 求 <span><span>∫sin⁡2xcos⁡2x dx\displaystyle\int\sin^2x\cos^2x\,\mathrm dx</span><span><span><span></span><span>∫</span><span></span><span><span>sin</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>2</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span><span>x</span><span></span><span><span>cos</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>2</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span><span>x</span><span></span><span>d</span><span>x</span></span></span></span>。</p><p><strong>解</strong> 都是偶次，降次：</p><span><span><span>sin⁡2xcos⁡2x=sin⁡22x4=1−cos⁡4x8,\sin^2x\cos^2x=\frac{\sin^22x}{4}=\frac{1-\cos4x}{8},</span><span><span><span></span><span><span>sin</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>2</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span><span>x</span><span></span><span><span>cos</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>2</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span><span>x</span><span></span><span>=</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span></span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>4</span></span></span><span><span></span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span><span>sin</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>2</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span><span>2</span><span>x</span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span></span><span></span><span>=</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span></span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>8</span></span></span><span><span></span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span>1</span><span></span><span>−</span><span></span><span>cos</span><span></span><span>4</span><span>x</span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span></span><span>,</span></span></span></span></span><span><span><span>原式=x8−sin⁡4x32+C.\text{原式}=\boxed{\frac x8-\frac{\sin4x}{32}+C}.</span><span><span><span></span><span><span>原式</span></span><span></span><span>=</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>8</span></span></span><span><span></span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span>x</span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span></span><span></span><span>−</span><span></span><span><span></span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>32</span></span></span><span><span></span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span>sin</span><span></span><span>4</span><span>x</span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span></span><span></span><span>+</span><span></span><span>C</span></span></span></span></span><span><span></span><span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span><span>.</span></span></span></span></span><p><strong>例 6</strong> 求 <span><span>∫sin⁡xsin⁡x+cos⁡x dx\displaystyle\int\frac{\sin x}{\sin x+\cos x}\,\mathrm dx</span><span><span><span></span><span>∫</span><span></span><span><span></span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>sin</span><span></span><span>x</span><span></span><span>+</span><span></span><span>cos</span><span></span><span>x</span></span></span><span><span></span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span>sin</span><span></span><span>x</span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span></span><span></span><span>d</span><span>x</span></span></span></span>。</p><p><strong>解</strong> 这类 <span><span>asin⁡x+bcos⁡xcsin⁡x+dcos⁡x\dfrac{a\sin x+b\cos x}{c\sin x+d\cos x}</span><span><span><span></span><span><span></span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>c</span><span></span><span>sin</span><span></span><span>x</span><span></span><span>+</span><span></span><span>d</span><span></span><span>cos</span><span></span><span>x</span></span></span><span><span></span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span>a</span><span></span><span>sin</span><span></span><span>x</span><span></span><span>+</span><span></span><span>b</span><span></span><span>cos</span><span></span><span>x</span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span></span></span></span></span> 的积分，把分子写成“<strong>分母 + 分母的导数</strong>”的组合：</p><span><span><span>sin⁡x=A(sin⁡x+cos⁡x)+B(cos⁡x−sin⁡x).\sin x=A(\sin x+\cos x)+B(\cos x-\sin x).</span><span><span><span></span><span>sin</span><span></span><span>x</span><span></span><span>=</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>A</span><span>(</span><span>sin</span><span></span><span>x</span><span></span><span>+</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>cos</span><span></span><span>x</span><span>)</span><span></span><span>+</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>B</span><span>(</span><span>cos</span><span></span><span>x</span><span></span><span>−</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>sin</span><span></span><span>x</span><span>)</span><span>.</span></span></span></span></span><p>比较系数：<span><span>A−B=1A-B=1</span><span><span><span></span><span>A</span><span></span><span>−</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>B</span><span></span><span>=</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>1</span></span></span></span>，<span><span>A+B=0A+B=0</span><span><span><span></span><span>A</span><span></span><span>+</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>B</span><span></span><span>=</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>0</span></span></span></span>，得 <span><span>A=12A=\frac12</span><span><span><span></span><span>A</span><span></span><span>=</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span></span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span>2</span></span></span></span><span><span></span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span><span>1</span></span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span></span></span></span></span>，<span><span>B=−12B=-\frac12</span><span><span><span></span><span>B</span><span></span><span>=</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>−</span><span><span></span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span>2</span></span></span></span><span><span></span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span><span>1</span></span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span></span></span></span></span>。于是</p><span><span><span>原式=∫12 dx−12∫d(sin⁡x+cos⁡x)sin⁡x+cos⁡x=x2−12ln⁡∣sin⁡x+cos⁡x∣+C.\text{原式}=\int\frac12\,\mathrm dx-\frac12\int\frac{\mathrm d(\sin x+\cos x)}{\sin x+\cos x}=\boxed{\frac x2-\frac12\ln\lvert\sin x+\cos x\rvert+C}.</span><span><span><span></span><span><span>原式</span></span><span></span><span>=</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>∫</span><span></span><span><span></span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>2</span></span></span><span><span></span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span>1</span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span></span><span></span><span>d</span><span>x</span><span></span><span>−</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span></span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>2</span></span></span><span><span></span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span>1</span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span></span><span></span><span>∫</span><span></span><span><span></span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>sin</span><span></span><span>x</span><span></span><span>+</span><span></span><span>cos</span><span></span><span>x</span></span></span><span><span></span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span>d</span><span>(</span><span>sin</span><span></span><span>x</span><span></span><span>+</span><span></span><span>cos</span><span></span><span>x</span><span>)</span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span></span><span></span><span>=</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>2</span></span></span><span><span></span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span>x</span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span></span><span></span><span>−</span><span></span><span><span></span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>2</span></span></span><span><span></span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span>1</span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span></span><span></span><span>ln</span><span>∣</span><span>sin</span><span></span><span>x</span><span></span><span>+</span><span></span><span>cos</span><span></span><span>x</span><span>∣</span><span></span><span>+</span><span></span><span>C</span></span></span></span></span><span><span></span><span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span><span>.</span></span></span></span></span></section><section><h3>题型 3：三角代换<a href="#题型-3三角代换"><span>#</span></a></h3><p><strong>识别特征</strong>：被积函数含 <span><span>a2−x2\sqrt{a^2-x^2}</span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span>a</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>2</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span><span>−</span><span></span><span><span>x</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>2</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span><span></span><span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span>、<span><span>a2+x2\sqrt{a^2+x^2}</span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span>a</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>2</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span><span>+</span><span></span><span><span>x</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>2</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span><span></span><span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span> 或 <span><span>x2−a2\sqrt{x^2-a^2}</span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span>x</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>2</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span><span>−</span><span></span><span><span>a</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>2</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span><span></span><span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span>，且凑微分做不了。</p><p><strong>解法步骤</strong>：</p><ol>
<li>按表选代换，去掉根号；</li>
<li>对 <span><span>tt</span><span><span><span></span><span>t</span></span></span></span> 积分；</li>
<li><strong>画直角三角形</strong>，把 <span><span>tt</span><span><span><span></span><span>t</span></span></span></span> 的三角函数换回 <span><span>xx</span><span><span><span></span><span>x</span></span></span></span>。</li>
</ol><p><strong>例 7</strong> 求 <span><span>∫a2−x2 dx (a&gt;0)\displaystyle\int\sqrt{a^2-x^2}\,\mathrm dx\ (a&gt;0)</span><span><span><span></span><span>∫</span><span></span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span>a</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>2</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span><span>−</span><span></span><span><span>x</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>2</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span><span></span><span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span><span>d</span><span>x</span><span> </span><span>(</span><span>a</span><span></span><span>&gt;</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>0</span><span>)</span></span></span></span>。</p><p><strong>解</strong> 令 <span><span>x=asin⁡tx=a\sin t</span><span><span><span></span><span>x</span><span></span><span>=</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>a</span><span></span><span>sin</span><span></span><span>t</span></span></span></span>，<span><span>t∈[−π2,π2]t\in\left[-\frac\pi2,\frac\pi2\right]</span><span><span><span></span><span>t</span><span></span><span>∈</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span><span>[</span></span><span>−</span><span><span></span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span>2</span></span></span></span><span><span></span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span><span>π</span></span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span></span><span>,</span><span></span><span><span></span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span>2</span></span></span></span><span><span></span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span><span>π</span></span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span></span><span><span>]</span></span></span></span></span></span>，则 <span><span>a2−x2=acos⁡t\sqrt{a^2-x^2}=a\cos t</span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span>a</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>2</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span><span>−</span><span></span><span><span>x</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>2</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span><span></span><span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span><span>=</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>a</span><span></span><span>cos</span><span></span><span>t</span></span></span></span>，<span><span>dx=acos⁡t dt\mathrm dx=a\cos t\,\mathrm dt</span><span><span><span></span><span>d</span><span>x</span><span></span><span>=</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>a</span><span></span><span>cos</span><span></span><span>t</span><span></span><span>d</span><span>t</span></span></span></span>。</p><span><span><span>∫a2cos⁡2t dt=a22∫(1+cos⁡2t) dt=a22(t+sin⁡tcos⁡t)+C.\int a^2\cos^2t\,\mathrm dt=\frac{a^2}{2}\int(1+\cos2t)\,\mathrm dt=\frac{a^2}{2}\left(t+\sin t\cos t\right)+C.</span><span><span><span></span><span>∫</span><span></span><span><span>a</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>2</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span><span><span>cos</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>2</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span><span>t</span><span></span><span>d</span><span>t</span><span></span><span>=</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span></span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>2</span></span></span><span><span></span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span><span>a</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>2</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span></span><span></span><span>∫</span><span>(</span><span>1</span><span></span><span>+</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>cos</span><span></span><span>2</span><span>t</span><span>)</span><span></span><span>d</span><span>t</span><span></span><span>=</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span></span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>2</span></span></span><span><span></span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span><span>a</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>2</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span></span><span></span><span><span>(</span><span>t</span><span></span><span>+</span><span></span><span>sin</span><span></span><span>t</span><span></span><span>cos</span><span></span><span>t</span><span>)</span></span><span></span><span>+</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>C</span><span>.</span></span></span></span></span><p>回代：<span><span>sin⁡t=xa\sin t=\dfrac xa</span><span><span><span></span><span>sin</span><span></span><span>t</span><span></span><span>=</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span></span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>a</span></span></span><span><span></span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span>x</span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span></span></span></span></span>，<span><span>cos⁡t=a2−x2a\cos t=\dfrac{\sqrt{a^2-x^2}}{a}</span><span><span><span></span><span>cos</span><span></span><span>t</span><span></span><span>=</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span></span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>a</span></span></span><span><span></span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span>a</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>2</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span><span>−</span><span></span><span><span>x</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>2</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span><span></span><span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span></span></span></span></span>，得</p><span><span><span>a22arcsin⁡xa+x2a2−x2+C.\boxed{\frac{a^2}{2}\arcsin\frac xa+\frac x2\sqrt{a^2-x^2}+C}.</span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>2</span></span></span><span><span></span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span><span>a</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>2</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span></span><span></span><span>arcsin</span><span></span><span><span></span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>a</span></span></span><span><span></span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span>x</span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span></span><span></span><span>+</span><span></span><span><span></span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>2</span></span></span><span><span></span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span>x</span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span></span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span>a</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>2</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span><span>−</span><span></span><span><span>x</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>2</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span><span></span><span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span><span>+</span><span></span><span>C</span></span></span></span></span><span><span></span><span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span><span>.</span></span></span></span></span><p><strong>例 8</strong> 求 <span><span>∫dxx21+x2\displaystyle\int\frac{\mathrm dx}{x^2\sqrt{1+x^2}}</span><span><span><span></span><span>∫</span><span></span><span><span></span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span>x</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>2</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>1</span><span></span><span>+</span><span></span><span><span>x</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>2</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span><span></span><span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span><span></span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span>d</span><span>x</span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span></span></span></span></span>。</p><p><strong>解</strong> 令 <span><span>x=tan⁡tx=\tan t</span><span><span><span></span><span>x</span><span></span><span>=</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>tan</span><span></span><span>t</span></span></span></span>，<span><span>dx=sec⁡2t dt\mathrm dx=\sec^2t\,\mathrm dt</span><span><span><span></span><span>d</span><span>x</span><span></span><span>=</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span>sec</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>2</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span><span>t</span><span></span><span>d</span><span>t</span></span></span></span>，<span><span>1+x2=sec⁡t\sqrt{1+x^2}=\sec t</span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>1</span><span></span><span>+</span><span></span><span><span>x</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>2</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span><span></span><span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span><span>=</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>sec</span><span></span><span>t</span></span></span></span>：</p><span><span><span>∫sec⁡2ttan⁡2tsec⁡t dt=∫cos⁡tsin⁡2t dt=−1sin⁡t+C.\int\frac{\sec^2t}{\tan^2t\sec t}\,\mathrm dt=\int\frac{\cos t}{\sin^2t}\,\mathrm dt=-\frac{1}{\sin t}+C.</span><span><span><span></span><span>∫</span><span></span><span><span></span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span>tan</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>2</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span><span>t</span><span></span><span>sec</span><span></span><span>t</span></span></span><span><span></span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span><span>sec</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>2</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span><span>t</span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span></span><span></span><span>d</span><span>t</span><span></span><span>=</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>∫</span><span></span><span><span></span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span>sin</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>2</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span><span>t</span></span></span><span><span></span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span>cos</span><span></span><span>t</span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span></span><span></span><span>d</span><span>t</span><span></span><span>=</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>−</span><span><span></span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>sin</span><span></span><span>t</span></span></span><span><span></span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span>1</span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span></span><span></span><span>+</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>C</span><span>.</span></span></span></span></span><p>画三角形：对边 <span><span>xx</span><span><span><span></span><span>x</span></span></span></span>，邻边 <span><span>11</span><span><span><span></span><span>1</span></span></span></span>，斜边 <span><span>1+x2\sqrt{1+x^2}</span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>1</span><span></span><span>+</span><span></span><span><span>x</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>2</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span><span></span><span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span>，所以 <span><span>sin⁡t=x1+x2\sin t=\dfrac{x}{\sqrt{1+x^2}}</span><span><span><span></span><span>sin</span><span></span><span>t</span><span></span><span>=</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span></span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>1</span><span></span><span>+</span><span></span><span><span>x</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>2</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span><span></span><span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span><span></span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span>x</span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span></span></span></span></span>。</p><span><span><span>原式=−1+x2x+C.\text{原式}=\boxed{-\frac{\sqrt{1+x^2}}{x}+C}.</span><span><span><span></span><span><span>原式</span></span><span></span><span>=</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span><span>−</span><span><span></span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>x</span></span></span><span><span></span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>1</span><span></span><span>+</span><span></span><span><span>x</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>2</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span><span></span><span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span></span><span></span><span>+</span><span></span><span>C</span></span></span></span></span><span><span></span><span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span><span>.</span></span></span></span></span><div><div><div></div><div>回代用直角三角形</div></div><div><p>由 <span><span>x=asin⁡tx=a\sin t</span><span><span><span></span><span>x</span><span></span><span>=</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>a</span><span></span><span>sin</span><span></span><span>t</span></span></span></span> 等式子画出直角三角形，三条边都用 <span><span>xx</span><span><span><span></span><span>x</span></span></span></span> 表示，需要哪个三角函数就直接读出来，不容易出错。</p></div></div></section><section><h3>题型 4：根式代换与倒代换<a href="#题型-4根式代换与倒代换"><span>#</span></a></h3><p><strong>例 9</strong> 求 <span><span>∫dx1+x\displaystyle\int\frac{\mathrm dx}{1+\sqrt x}</span><span><span><span></span><span>∫</span><span></span><span><span></span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>1</span><span></span><span>+</span><span></span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span>x</span></span><span><span></span><span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span><span></span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span>d</span><span>x</span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span></span></span></span></span>。</p><p><strong>解</strong> 令 <span><span>t=xt=\sqrt x</span><span><span><span></span><span>t</span><span></span><span>=</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span>x</span></span><span><span></span><span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span>，<span><span>x=t2x=t^2</span><span><span><span></span><span>x</span><span></span><span>=</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span>t</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>2</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span>，<span><span>dx=2t dt\mathrm dx=2t\,\mathrm dt</span><span><span><span></span><span>d</span><span>x</span><span></span><span>=</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>2</span><span>t</span><span></span><span>d</span><span>t</span></span></span></span>：</p><span><span><span>∫2t1+t dt=2∫(1−11+t)dt=2t−2ln⁡(1+t)+C=2x−2ln⁡(1+x)+C.\int\frac{2t}{1+t}\,\mathrm dt=2\int\left(1-\frac{1}{1+t}\right)\mathrm dt=2t-2\ln(1+t)+C=\boxed{2\sqrt x-2\ln(1+\sqrt x)+C}.</span><span><span><span></span><span>∫</span><span></span><span><span></span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>1</span><span></span><span>+</span><span></span><span>t</span></span></span><span><span></span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span>2</span><span>t</span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span></span><span></span><span>d</span><span>t</span><span></span><span>=</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>2</span><span></span><span>∫</span><span></span><span><span><span>(</span></span><span>1</span><span></span><span>−</span><span></span><span><span></span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>1</span><span></span><span>+</span><span></span><span>t</span></span></span><span><span></span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span>1</span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span></span><span><span>)</span></span></span><span></span><span>d</span><span>t</span><span></span><span>=</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>2</span><span>t</span><span></span><span>−</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>2</span><span></span><span>ln</span><span>(</span><span>1</span><span></span><span>+</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>t</span><span>)</span><span></span><span>+</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>C</span><span></span><span>=</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span><span>2</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span>x</span></span><span><span></span><span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span><span>−</span><span></span><span>2</span><span></span><span>ln</span><span>(</span><span>1</span><span></span><span>+</span><span></span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span>x</span></span><span><span></span><span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span><span>)</span><span></span><span>+</span><span></span><span>C</span></span></span></span></span><span><span></span><span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span><span>.</span></span></span></span></span><p><strong>例 10</strong> 求 <span><span>∫dxx+x3\displaystyle\int\frac{\mathrm dx}{\sqrt x+\sqrt[3]x}</span><span><span><span></span><span>∫</span><span></span><span><span></span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span>x</span></span><span><span></span><span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span><span>+</span><span></span><span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span>3</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>x</span></span></span><span><span></span><span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span><span></span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span>d</span><span>x</span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span></span></span></span></span>。</p><p><strong>解</strong> 根指数 2 和 3 的最小公倍数是 6，令 <span><span>t=x6t=\sqrt[6]x</span><span><span><span></span><span>t</span><span></span><span>=</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span>6</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>x</span></span></span><span><span></span><span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span>，<span><span>x=t6x=t^6</span><span><span><span></span><span>x</span><span></span><span>=</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span>t</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>6</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span>，<span><span>dx=6t5 dt\mathrm dx=6t^5\,\mathrm dt</span><span><span><span></span><span>d</span><span>x</span><span></span><span>=</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>6</span><span><span>t</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>5</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span><span>d</span><span>t</span></span></span></span>：</p><span><span><span>∫6t5t3+t2 dt=6∫t3t+1 dt=6∫(t2−t+1−1t+1)dt.\int\frac{6t^5}{t^3+t^2}\,\mathrm dt=6\int\frac{t^3}{t+1}\,\mathrm dt=6\int\left(t^2-t+1-\frac{1}{t+1}\right)\mathrm dt.</span><span><span><span></span><span>∫</span><span></span><span><span></span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span>t</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>3</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span><span>+</span><span></span><span><span>t</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>2</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span><span></span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span>6</span><span><span>t</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>5</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span></span><span></span><span>d</span><span>t</span><span></span><span>=</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>6</span><span></span><span>∫</span><span></span><span><span></span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>t</span><span></span><span>+</span><span></span><span>1</span></span></span><span><span></span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span><span>t</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>3</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span></span><span></span><span>d</span><span>t</span><span></span><span>=</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>6</span><span></span><span>∫</span><span></span><span><span><span>(</span></span><span><span>t</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>2</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span><span>−</span><span></span><span>t</span><span></span><span>+</span><span></span><span>1</span><span></span><span>−</span><span></span><span><span></span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>t</span><span></span><span>+</span><span></span><span>1</span></span></span><span><span></span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span>1</span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span></span><span><span>)</span></span></span><span></span><span>d</span><span>t</span><span>.</span></span></span></span></span><span><span><span>=2t3−3t2+6t−6ln⁡∣t+1∣+C,t=x6.=2t^3-3t^2+6t-6\ln\lvert t+1\rvert+C,\quad t=\sqrt[6]x.</span><span><span><span></span><span>=</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>2</span><span><span>t</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>3</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span><span>−</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>3</span><span><span>t</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>2</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span><span>+</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>6</span><span>t</span><span></span><span>−</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>6</span><span></span><span>ln</span><span>∣</span><span>t</span><span></span><span>+</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>1</span><span>∣</span><span></span><span>+</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>C</span><span>,</span><span></span><span></span><span>t</span><span></span><span>=</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span>6</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>x</span></span></span><span><span></span><span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span><span>.</span></span></span></span></span><div><div><div></div><div>倒代换</div></div><div><p>分母次数比分子高很多时（如 <span><span>1x41+x2\dfrac{1}{x^4\sqrt{1+x^2}}</span><span><span><span></span><span><span></span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span>x</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>4</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>1</span><span></span><span>+</span><span></span><span><span>x</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>2</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span><span></span><span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span><span></span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span>1</span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span></span></span></span></span>），可以令 <span><span>x=1tx=\dfrac1t</span><span><span><span></span><span>x</span><span></span><span>=</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span></span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>t</span></span></span><span><span></span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span>1</span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span></span></span></span></span>，把高次的分母“翻”上去。</p></div></div></section><section><h3>题型 5：分部积分<a href="#题型-5分部积分"><span>#</span></a></h3><p><strong>识别特征</strong>：两类不同的函数相乘，如 <span><span>x exx\,e^x</span><span><span><span></span><span>x</span><span></span><span><span>e</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>x</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span>、<span><span>xln⁡xx\ln x</span><span><span><span></span><span>x</span><span></span><span>ln</span><span></span><span>x</span></span></span></span>、<span><span>exsin⁡xe^x\sin x</span><span><span><span></span><span><span>e</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>x</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span><span>sin</span><span></span><span>x</span></span></span></span>；或者单独一个 <span><span>ln⁡x\ln x</span><span><span><span></span><span>ln</span><span></span><span>x</span></span></span></span>、<span><span>arctan⁡x\arctan x</span><span><span><span></span><span>arctan</span><span></span><span>x</span></span></span></span>、<span><span>arcsin⁡x\arcsin x</span><span><span><span></span><span>arcsin</span><span></span><span>x</span></span></span></span>。</p><p><strong>选 <span><span>uu</span><span><span><span></span><span>u</span></span></span></span> 的口诀“反对幂指三”</strong>：按<strong>反三角函数、对数函数、幂函数、指数函数、三角函数</strong>的顺序，<strong>排在前面的当 <span><span>uu</span><span><span><span></span><span>u</span></span></span></span></strong>（留着求导），排在后面的凑进 <span><span>dv\mathrm dv</span><span><span><span></span><span>d</span><span>v</span></span></span></span>。</p><p><strong>例 11</strong> 求 <span><span>∫ln⁡x dx\displaystyle\int\ln x\,\mathrm dx</span><span><span><span></span><span>∫</span><span></span><span>ln</span><span></span><span>x</span><span></span><span>d</span><span>x</span></span></span></span> 和 <span><span>∫xarctan⁡x dx\displaystyle\int x\arctan x\,\mathrm dx</span><span><span><span></span><span>∫</span><span></span><span>x</span><span></span><span>arctan</span><span></span><span>x</span><span></span><span>d</span><span>x</span></span></span></span>。</p><p><strong>解</strong> 第一个，<span><span>u=ln⁡xu=\ln x</span><span><span><span></span><span>u</span><span></span><span>=</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>ln</span><span></span><span>x</span></span></span></span>，<span><span>v=xv=x</span><span><span><span></span><span>v</span><span></span><span>=</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>x</span></span></span></span>：</p><span><span><span>∫ln⁡x dx=xln⁡x−∫x⋅1x dx=xln⁡x−x+C.\int\ln x\,\mathrm dx=x\ln x-\int x\cdot\frac1x\,\mathrm dx=\boxed{x\ln x-x+C}.</span><span><span><span></span><span>∫</span><span></span><span>ln</span><span></span><span>x</span><span></span><span>d</span><span>x</span><span></span><span>=</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>x</span><span></span><span>ln</span><span></span><span>x</span><span></span><span>−</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>∫</span><span></span><span>x</span><span></span><span>⋅</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span></span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>x</span></span></span><span><span></span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span>1</span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span></span><span></span><span>d</span><span>x</span><span></span><span>=</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span><span>x</span><span></span><span>ln</span><span></span><span>x</span><span></span><span>−</span><span></span><span>x</span><span></span><span>+</span><span></span><span>C</span></span></span></span></span><span><span></span><span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span><span>.</span></span></span></span></span><p>第二个，<span><span>u=arctan⁡xu=\arctan x</span><span><span><span></span><span>u</span><span></span><span>=</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>arctan</span><span></span><span>x</span></span></span></span>，<span><span>dv=x dx\mathrm dv=x\,\mathrm dx</span><span><span><span></span><span>d</span><span>v</span><span></span><span>=</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>x</span><span></span><span>d</span><span>x</span></span></span></span>，<span><span>v=x22v=\dfrac{x^2}{2}</span><span><span><span></span><span>v</span><span></span><span>=</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span></span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>2</span></span></span><span><span></span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span><span>x</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>2</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span></span></span></span></span>：</p><span><span><span>∫xarctan⁡x dx=x22arctan⁡x−12∫x21+x2 dx=x22arctan⁡x−12(x−arctan⁡x)+C.\int x\arctan x\,\mathrm dx=\frac{x^2}{2}\arctan x-\frac12\int\frac{x^2}{1+x^2}\,\mathrm dx=\frac{x^2}{2}\arctan x-\frac12(x-\arctan x)+C.</span><span><span><span></span><span>∫</span><span></span><span>x</span><span></span><span>arctan</span><span></span><span>x</span><span></span><span>d</span><span>x</span><span></span><span>=</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span></span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>2</span></span></span><span><span></span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span><span>x</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>2</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span></span><span></span><span>arctan</span><span></span><span>x</span><span></span><span>−</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span></span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>2</span></span></span><span><span></span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span>1</span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span></span><span></span><span>∫</span><span></span><span><span></span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>1</span><span></span><span>+</span><span></span><span><span>x</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>2</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span><span></span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span><span>x</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>2</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span></span><span></span><span>d</span><span>x</span><span></span><span>=</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span></span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>2</span></span></span><span><span></span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span><span>x</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>2</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span></span><span></span><span>arctan</span><span></span><span>x</span><span></span><span>−</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span></span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>2</span></span></span><span><span></span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span>1</span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span></span><span>(</span><span>x</span><span></span><span>−</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>arctan</span><span></span><span>x</span><span>)</span><span></span><span>+</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>C</span><span>.</span></span></span></span></span><p>整理得 <span><span>x2+12arctan⁡x−x2+C\boxed{\dfrac{x^2+1}{2}\arctan x-\dfrac x2+C}</span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>2</span></span></span><span><span></span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span><span>x</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>2</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span><span>+</span><span></span><span>1</span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span></span><span></span><span>arctan</span><span></span><span>x</span><span></span><span>−</span><span></span><span><span></span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>2</span></span></span><span><span></span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span>x</span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span></span><span></span><span>+</span><span></span><span>C</span></span></span></span></span><span><span></span><span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span>。</p><p><strong>例 12（表格法）</strong> 求 <span><span>∫x2cos⁡x dx\displaystyle\int x^2\cos x\,\mathrm dx</span><span><span><span></span><span>∫</span><span></span><span><span>x</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>2</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span><span>cos</span><span></span><span>x</span><span></span><span>d</span><span>x</span></span></span></span>。</p><p><strong>解</strong> 多项式要分部好几次，用表格法更快：左列对多项式<strong>不断求导</strong>直到 <span><span>00</span><span><span><span></span><span>0</span></span></span></span>，右列对另一个函数<strong>不断积分</strong>，然后斜着相乘，符号正负交替。</p>

<table><thead><tr><th>符号</th><th>求导列</th><th>积分列</th></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td><span><span>++</span><span><span><span></span><span>+</span></span></span></span></td><td><span><span>x2x^2</span><span><span><span></span><span><span>x</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>2</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></td><td><span><span>cos⁡x\cos x</span><span><span><span></span><span>cos</span><span></span><span>x</span></span></span></span></td></tr><tr><td><span><span>−-</span><span><span><span></span><span>−</span></span></span></span></td><td><span><span>2x2x</span><span><span><span></span><span>2</span><span>x</span></span></span></span></td><td><span><span>sin⁡x\sin x</span><span><span><span></span><span>sin</span><span></span><span>x</span></span></span></span></td></tr><tr><td><span><span>++</span><span><span><span></span><span>+</span></span></span></span></td><td><span><span>22</span><span><span><span></span><span>2</span></span></span></span></td><td><span><span>−cos⁡x-\cos x</span><span><span><span></span><span>−</span><span></span><span>cos</span><span></span><span>x</span></span></span></span></td></tr><tr><td></td><td><span><span>00</span><span><span><span></span><span>0</span></span></span></span></td><td><span><span>−sin⁡x-\sin x</span><span><span><span></span><span>−</span><span></span><span>sin</span><span></span><span>x</span></span></span></span></td></tr></tbody></table><p>斜着相乘：</p><span><span><span>原式=x2sin⁡x−2x(−cos⁡x)+2(−sin⁡x)+C=x2sin⁡x+2xcos⁡x−2sin⁡x+C.\text{原式}=x^2\sin x-2x(-\cos x)+2(-\sin x)+C=\boxed{x^2\sin x+2x\cos x-2\sin x+C}.</span><span><span><span></span><span><span>原式</span></span><span></span><span>=</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span>x</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>2</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span><span>sin</span><span></span><span>x</span><span></span><span>−</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>2</span><span>x</span><span>(</span><span>−</span><span></span><span>cos</span><span></span><span>x</span><span>)</span><span></span><span>+</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>2</span><span>(</span><span>−</span><span></span><span>sin</span><span></span><span>x</span><span>)</span><span></span><span>+</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>C</span><span></span><span>=</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span><span><span>x</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>2</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span><span>sin</span><span></span><span>x</span><span></span><span>+</span><span></span><span>2</span><span>x</span><span></span><span>cos</span><span></span><span>x</span><span></span><span>−</span><span></span><span>2</span><span></span><span>sin</span><span></span><span>x</span><span></span><span>+</span><span></span><span>C</span></span></span></span></span><span><span></span><span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span><span>.</span></span></span></span></span><p><strong>例 13（循环积分）</strong> 求 <span><span>∫exsin⁡x dx\displaystyle\int e^x\sin x\,\mathrm dx</span><span><span><span></span><span>∫</span><span></span><span><span>e</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>x</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span><span>sin</span><span></span><span>x</span><span></span><span>d</span><span>x</span></span></span></span>。</p><p><strong>解</strong> 记 <span><span>I=∫exsin⁡x dxI=\displaystyle\int e^x\sin x\,\mathrm dx</span><span><span><span></span><span>I</span><span></span><span>=</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>∫</span><span></span><span><span>e</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>x</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span><span>sin</span><span></span><span>x</span><span></span><span>d</span><span>x</span></span></span></span>。分部两次：</p><span><span><span>I=exsin⁡x−∫excos⁡x dx=exsin⁡x−(excos⁡x+∫exsin⁡x dx)=ex(sin⁡x−cos⁡x)−I.I=e^x\sin x-\int e^x\cos x\,\mathrm dx=e^x\sin x-\left(e^x\cos x+\int e^x\sin x\,\mathrm dx\right)=e^x(\sin x-\cos x)-I.</span><span><span><span></span><span>I</span><span></span><span>=</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span>e</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>x</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span><span>sin</span><span></span><span>x</span><span></span><span>−</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>∫</span><span></span><span><span>e</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>x</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span><span>cos</span><span></span><span>x</span><span></span><span>d</span><span>x</span><span></span><span>=</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span>e</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>x</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span><span>sin</span><span></span><span>x</span><span></span><span>−</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span><span>(</span></span><span><span>e</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>x</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span><span>cos</span><span></span><span>x</span><span></span><span>+</span><span></span><span>∫</span><span></span><span><span>e</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>x</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span><span>sin</span><span></span><span>x</span><span></span><span>d</span><span>x</span><span><span>)</span></span></span><span></span><span>=</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span>e</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>x</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span>(</span><span>sin</span><span></span><span>x</span><span></span><span>−</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>cos</span><span></span><span>x</span><span>)</span><span></span><span>−</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>I</span><span>.</span></span></span></span></span><p>原积分又出现了，移项解方程：</p><span><span><span>I=ex2(sin⁡x−cos⁡x)+C.I=\boxed{\frac{e^x}{2}(\sin x-\cos x)+C}.</span><span><span><span></span><span>I</span><span></span><span>=</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>2</span></span></span><span><span></span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span><span>e</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>x</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span></span><span>(</span><span>sin</span><span></span><span>x</span><span></span><span>−</span><span></span><span>cos</span><span></span><span>x</span><span>)</span><span></span><span>+</span><span></span><span>C</span></span></span></span></span><span><span></span><span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span><span>.</span></span></span></span></span><div><div><div></div><div>循环积分的两个要点</div></div><div><ol>
<li>两次分部时，<span><span>uu</span><span><span><span></span><span>u</span></span></span></span> 必须选<strong>同一类</strong>函数（都选三角或都选指数），否则会绕回原点，得到 <span><span>I=II=I</span><span><span><span></span><span>I</span><span></span><span>=</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>I</span></span></span></span>。</li>
<li>解出 <span><span>II</span><span><span><span></span><span>I</span></span></span></span> 后<strong>再补上 <span><span>CC</span><span><span><span></span><span>C</span></span></span></span></strong>。</li>
</ol></div></div></section><section><h3>题型 6：有理函数积分<a href="#题型-6有理函数积分"><span>#</span></a></h3><p><strong>解法步骤</strong>：</p><ol>
<li>若是<strong>假分式</strong>（分子次数 <span><span>≥\ge</span><span><span><span></span><span>≥</span></span></span></span> 分母次数），先做多项式除法，化成多项式 + 真分式；</li>
<li>分母<strong>因式分解</strong>；</li>
<li>按下表<strong>拆成部分分式</strong>，求出系数；</li>
<li>每一项分别积分。</li>
</ol>

<table><thead><tr><th>分母中的因式</th><th>对应的部分分式</th></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td><span><span>x−ax-a</span><span><span><span></span><span>x</span><span></span><span>−</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>a</span></span></span></span></td><td><span><span>Ax−a\dfrac{A}{x-a}</span><span><span><span></span><span><span></span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>x</span><span></span><span>−</span><span></span><span>a</span></span></span><span><span></span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span>A</span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span></span></span></span></span></td></tr><tr><td><span><span>(x−a)k(x-a)^k</span><span><span><span></span><span>(</span><span>x</span><span></span><span>−</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>a</span><span><span>)</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>k</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></td><td><span><span>A1x−a+A2(x−a)2+⋯+Ak(x−a)k\dfrac{A_1}{x-a}+\dfrac{A_2}{(x-a)^2}+\cdots+\dfrac{A_k}{(x-a)^k}</span><span><span><span></span><span><span></span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>x</span><span></span><span>−</span><span></span><span>a</span></span></span><span><span></span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span><span>A</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>1</span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span></span><span></span><span>+</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span></span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>(</span><span>x</span><span></span><span>−</span><span></span><span>a</span><span><span>)</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>2</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span><span></span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span><span>A</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>2</span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span></span><span></span><span>+</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>⋯</span><span></span><span>+</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span></span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>(</span><span>x</span><span></span><span>−</span><span></span><span>a</span><span><span>)</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>k</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span><span></span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span><span>A</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>k</span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span></span></span></span></span></td></tr><tr><td><span><span>x2+px+qx^2+px+q</span><span><span><span></span><span><span>x</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>2</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span><span>+</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>p</span><span>x</span><span></span><span>+</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>q</span></span></span></span>（<span><span>p2&lt;4qp^2&lt;4q</span><span><span><span></span><span><span>p</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>2</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span><span>&lt;</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>4</span><span>q</span></span></span></span>）</td><td><span><span>Bx+Cx2+px+q\dfrac{Bx+C}{x^2+px+q}</span><span><span><span></span><span><span></span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span>x</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>2</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span><span>+</span><span></span><span>p</span><span>x</span><span></span><span>+</span><span></span><span>q</span></span></span><span><span></span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span>B</span><span>x</span><span></span><span>+</span><span></span><span>C</span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span></span></span></span></span></td></tr></tbody></table><p><strong>例 14</strong> 求 <span><span>∫x+3x2−5x+6 dx\displaystyle\int\frac{x+3}{x^2-5x+6}\,\mathrm dx</span><span><span><span></span><span>∫</span><span></span><span><span></span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span>x</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>2</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span><span>−</span><span></span><span>5</span><span>x</span><span></span><span>+</span><span></span><span>6</span></span></span><span><span></span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span>x</span><span></span><span>+</span><span></span><span>3</span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span></span><span></span><span>d</span><span>x</span></span></span></span>。</p><p><strong>解</strong> <span><span>x2−5x+6=(x−2)(x−3)x^2-5x+6=(x-2)(x-3)</span><span><span><span></span><span><span>x</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>2</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span><span>−</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>5</span><span>x</span><span></span><span>+</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>6</span><span></span><span>=</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>(</span><span>x</span><span></span><span>−</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>2</span><span>)</span><span>(</span><span>x</span><span></span><span>−</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>3</span><span>)</span></span></span></span>，设 <span><span>x+3(x−2)(x−3)=Ax−2+Bx−3\dfrac{x+3}{(x-2)(x-3)}=\dfrac{A}{x-2}+\dfrac{B}{x-3}</span><span><span><span></span><span><span></span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>(</span><span>x</span><span></span><span>−</span><span></span><span>2</span><span>)</span><span>(</span><span>x</span><span></span><span>−</span><span></span><span>3</span><span>)</span></span></span><span><span></span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span>x</span><span></span><span>+</span><span></span><span>3</span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span></span><span></span><span>=</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span></span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>x</span><span></span><span>−</span><span></span><span>2</span></span></span><span><span></span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span>A</span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span></span><span></span><span>+</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span></span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>x</span><span></span><span>−</span><span></span><span>3</span></span></span><span><span></span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span>B</span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span></span></span></span></span>。</p><p>用<strong>留数法</strong>（遮住一个因式，代入它的零点）：</p><span><span><span>A=x+3x−3∣x=2=−5,B=x+3x−2∣x=3=6.A=\frac{x+3}{x-3}\Big|_{x=2}=-5,\qquad B=\frac{x+3}{x-2}\Big|_{x=3}=6.</span><span><span><span></span><span>A</span><span></span><span>=</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span></span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>x</span><span></span><span>−</span><span></span><span>3</span></span></span><span><span></span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span>x</span><span></span><span>+</span><span></span><span>3</span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span></span><span><span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span>x</span><span>=</span><span>2</span></span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span><span>=</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>−</span><span>5</span><span>,</span><span></span><span></span><span>B</span><span></span><span>=</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span></span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>x</span><span></span><span>−</span><span></span><span>2</span></span></span><span><span></span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span>x</span><span></span><span>+</span><span></span><span>3</span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span></span><span><span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span>x</span><span>=</span><span>3</span></span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span><span>=</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>6.</span></span></span></span></span><span><span><span>原式=−5ln⁡∣x−2∣+6ln⁡∣x−3∣+C.\text{原式}=\boxed{-5\ln\lvert x-2\rvert+6\ln\lvert x-3\rvert+C}.</span><span><span><span></span><span><span>原式</span></span><span></span><span>=</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span><span>−</span><span>5</span><span></span><span>ln</span><span>∣</span><span>x</span><span></span><span>−</span><span></span><span>2</span><span>∣</span><span></span><span>+</span><span></span><span>6</span><span></span><span>ln</span><span>∣</span><span>x</span><span></span><span>−</span><span></span><span>3</span><span>∣</span><span></span><span>+</span><span></span><span>C</span></span></span></span></span><span><span></span><span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span><span>.</span></span></span></span></span><p><strong>例 15</strong> 求 <span><span>∫dxx(x−1)2\displaystyle\int\frac{\mathrm dx}{x(x-1)^2}</span><span><span><span></span><span>∫</span><span></span><span><span></span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>x</span><span>(</span><span>x</span><span></span><span>−</span><span></span><span>1</span><span><span>)</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>2</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span><span></span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span>d</span><span>x</span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span></span></span></span></span>。</p><p><strong>解</strong> 设 <span><span>1x(x−1)2=Ax+Bx−1+D(x−1)2\dfrac{1}{x(x-1)^2}=\dfrac{A}{x}+\dfrac{B}{x-1}+\dfrac{D}{(x-1)^2}</span><span><span><span></span><span><span></span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>x</span><span>(</span><span>x</span><span></span><span>−</span><span></span><span>1</span><span><span>)</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>2</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span><span></span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span>1</span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span></span><span></span><span>=</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span></span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>x</span></span></span><span><span></span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span>A</span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span></span><span></span><span>+</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span></span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>x</span><span></span><span>−</span><span></span><span>1</span></span></span><span><span></span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span>B</span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span></span><span></span><span>+</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span></span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>(</span><span>x</span><span></span><span>−</span><span></span><span>1</span><span><span>)</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>2</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span><span></span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span>D</span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span></span></span></span></span>。</p><ul>
<li>留数法：<span><span>A=1(x−1)2∣x=0=1A=\dfrac{1}{(x-1)^2}\Big|_{x=0}=1</span><span><span><span></span><span>A</span><span></span><span>=</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span></span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>(</span><span>x</span><span></span><span>−</span><span></span><span>1</span><span><span>)</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>2</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span><span></span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span>1</span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span></span><span><span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span>x</span><span>=</span><span>0</span></span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span><span>=</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>1</span></span></span></span>，<span><span>D=1x∣x=1=1D=\dfrac1x\Big|_{x=1}=1</span><span><span><span></span><span>D</span><span></span><span>=</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span></span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>x</span></span></span><span><span></span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span>1</span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span></span><span><span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span>x</span><span>=</span><span>1</span></span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span><span>=</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>1</span></span></span></span>。</li>
<li>比较 <span><span>x2x^2</span><span><span><span></span><span><span>x</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>2</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span> 的系数：通分后分子为 <span><span>A(x−1)2+Bx(x−1)+DxA(x-1)^2+Bx(x-1)+Dx</span><span><span><span></span><span>A</span><span>(</span><span>x</span><span></span><span>−</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>1</span><span><span>)</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>2</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span><span>+</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>B</span><span>x</span><span>(</span><span>x</span><span></span><span>−</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>1</span><span>)</span><span></span><span>+</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>D</span><span>x</span></span></span></span>，<span><span>x2x^2</span><span><span><span></span><span><span>x</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>2</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span> 系数为 <span><span>A+B=0A+B=0</span><span><span><span></span><span>A</span><span></span><span>+</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>B</span><span></span><span>=</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>0</span></span></span></span>，所以 <span><span>B=−1B=-1</span><span><span><span></span><span>B</span><span></span><span>=</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>−</span><span>1</span></span></span></span>。</li>
</ul><span><span><span>原式=ln⁡∣x∣−ln⁡∣x−1∣−1x−1+C.\text{原式}=\boxed{\ln\lvert x\rvert-\ln\lvert x-1\rvert-\frac{1}{x-1}+C}.</span><span><span><span></span><span><span>原式</span></span><span></span><span>=</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span><span>ln</span><span>∣</span><span>x</span><span>∣</span><span></span><span>−</span><span></span><span>ln</span><span>∣</span><span>x</span><span></span><span>−</span><span></span><span>1</span><span>∣</span><span></span><span>−</span><span></span><span><span></span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>x</span><span></span><span>−</span><span></span><span>1</span></span></span><span><span></span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span>1</span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span></span><span></span><span>+</span><span></span><span>C</span></span></span></span></span><span><span></span><span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span><span>.</span></span></span></span></span><p><strong>例 16</strong> 求 <span><span>∫dxx(x2+1)\displaystyle\int\frac{\mathrm dx}{x(x^2+1)}</span><span><span><span></span><span>∫</span><span></span><span><span></span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>x</span><span>(</span><span><span>x</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>2</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span><span>+</span><span></span><span>1</span><span>)</span></span></span><span><span></span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span>d</span><span>x</span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span></span></span></span></span>。</p><p><strong>解</strong> 设 <span><span>1x(x2+1)=Ax+Bx+Dx2+1\dfrac{1}{x(x^2+1)}=\dfrac Ax+\dfrac{Bx+D}{x^2+1}</span><span><span><span></span><span><span></span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>x</span><span>(</span><span><span>x</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>2</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span><span>+</span><span></span><span>1</span><span>)</span></span></span><span><span></span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span>1</span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span></span><span></span><span>=</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span></span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>x</span></span></span><span><span></span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span>A</span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span></span><span></span><span>+</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span></span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span>x</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>2</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span><span>+</span><span></span><span>1</span></span></span><span><span></span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span>B</span><span>x</span><span></span><span>+</span><span></span><span>D</span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span></span></span></span></span>。留数法 <span><span>A=1A=1</span><span><span><span></span><span>A</span><span></span><span>=</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>1</span></span></span></span>；通分比较 <span><span>x2x^2</span><span><span><span></span><span><span>x</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>2</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span> 系数：<span><span>A+B=0A+B=0</span><span><span><span></span><span>A</span><span></span><span>+</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>B</span><span></span><span>=</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>0</span></span></span></span>，<span><span>B=−1B=-1</span><span><span><span></span><span>B</span><span></span><span>=</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>−</span><span>1</span></span></span></span>；比较 <span><span>xx</span><span><span><span></span><span>x</span></span></span></span> 系数：<span><span>D=0D=0</span><span><span><span></span><span>D</span><span></span><span>=</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>0</span></span></span></span>。</p><span><span><span>原式=∫(1x−xx2+1)dx=ln⁡∣x∣−12ln⁡(x2+1)+C.\text{原式}=\int\left(\frac1x-\frac{x}{x^2+1}\right)\mathrm dx=\boxed{\ln\lvert x\rvert-\frac12\ln(x^2+1)+C}.</span><span><span><span></span><span><span>原式</span></span><span></span><span>=</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>∫</span><span></span><span><span><span>(</span></span><span><span></span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>x</span></span></span><span><span></span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span>1</span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span></span><span></span><span>−</span><span></span><span><span></span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span>x</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>2</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span><span>+</span><span></span><span>1</span></span></span><span><span></span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span>x</span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span></span><span><span>)</span></span></span><span></span><span>d</span><span>x</span><span></span><span>=</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span><span>ln</span><span>∣</span><span>x</span><span>∣</span><span></span><span>−</span><span></span><span><span></span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>2</span></span></span><span><span></span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span>1</span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span></span><span></span><span>ln</span><span>(</span><span><span>x</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>2</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span><span>+</span><span></span><span>1</span><span>)</span><span></span><span>+</span><span></span><span>C</span></span></span></span></span><span><span></span><span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span><span>.</span></span></span></span></span></section><section><h3>题型 7：三角有理式积分<a href="#题型-7三角有理式积分"><span>#</span></a></h3><p><strong>解法</strong>：</p><ol>
<li><strong>先试恒等变形</strong>：倍角、半角公式往往一步就能做完；</li>
<li>实在不行，用<strong>万能代换</strong> <span><span>t=tan⁡x2t=\tan\dfrac x2</span><span><span><span></span><span>t</span><span></span><span>=</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>tan</span><span></span><span><span></span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>2</span></span></span><span><span></span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span>x</span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span></span></span></span></span>，化成有理函数。万能代换一定能做，但计算量大。</li>
</ol><p><strong>例 17</strong> 求 <span><span>∫dx1+cos⁡x\displaystyle\int\frac{\mathrm dx}{1+\cos x}</span><span><span><span></span><span>∫</span><span></span><span><span></span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>1</span><span></span><span>+</span><span></span><span>cos</span><span></span><span>x</span></span></span><span><span></span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span>d</span><span>x</span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span></span></span></span></span>。</p><p><strong>解</strong> 半角公式：<span><span>1+cos⁡x=2cos⁡2x21+\cos x=2\cos^2\dfrac x2</span><span><span><span></span><span>1</span><span></span><span>+</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>cos</span><span></span><span>x</span><span></span><span>=</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>2</span><span></span><span><span>cos</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>2</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span><span><span></span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>2</span></span></span><span><span></span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span>x</span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span></span></span></span></span>。</p><span><span><span>∫dx2cos⁡2x2=∫sec⁡2x2 d(x2)=tan⁡x2+C.\int\frac{\mathrm dx}{2\cos^2\frac x2}=\int\sec^2\frac x2\,\mathrm d\left(\frac x2\right)=\boxed{\tan\frac x2+C}.</span><span><span><span></span><span>∫</span><span></span><span><span></span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>2</span><span></span><span><span>cos</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>2</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span><span><span></span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span>2</span></span></span></span><span><span></span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span><span>x</span></span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span></span></span></span><span><span></span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span>d</span><span>x</span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span></span><span></span><span>=</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>∫</span><span></span><span><span>sec</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>2</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span><span><span></span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>2</span></span></span><span><span></span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span>x</span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span></span><span></span><span>d</span><span></span><span><span><span>(</span></span><span><span></span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>2</span></span></span><span><span></span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span>x</span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span></span><span><span>)</span></span></span><span></span><span>=</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span><span>tan</span><span></span><span><span></span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>2</span></span></span><span><span></span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span>x</span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span></span><span></span><span>+</span><span></span><span>C</span></span></span></span></span><span><span></span><span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span><span>.</span></span></span></span></span><p><strong>例 18</strong> 求 <span><span>∫dx2+cos⁡x\displaystyle\int\frac{\mathrm dx}{2+\cos x}</span><span><span><span></span><span>∫</span><span></span><span><span></span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>2</span><span></span><span>+</span><span></span><span>cos</span><span></span><span>x</span></span></span><span><span></span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span>d</span><span>x</span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span></span></span></span></span>。</p><p><strong>解</strong> 恒等变形不好做，用万能代换。令 <span><span>t=tan⁡x2t=\tan\dfrac x2</span><span><span><span></span><span>t</span><span></span><span>=</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>tan</span><span></span><span><span></span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>2</span></span></span><span><span></span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span>x</span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span></span></span></span></span>：</p><span><span><span>2+cos⁡x=2(1+t2)+(1−t2)1+t2=3+t21+t2,dx=2 dt1+t2.2+\cos x=\frac{2(1+t^2)+(1-t^2)}{1+t^2}=\frac{3+t^2}{1+t^2},\qquad\mathrm dx=\frac{2\,\mathrm dt}{1+t^2}.</span><span><span><span></span><span>2</span><span></span><span>+</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>cos</span><span></span><span>x</span><span></span><span>=</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span></span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>1</span><span></span><span>+</span><span></span><span><span>t</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>2</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span><span></span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span>2</span><span>(</span><span>1</span><span></span><span>+</span><span></span><span><span>t</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>2</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span>)</span><span></span><span>+</span><span></span><span>(</span><span>1</span><span></span><span>−</span><span></span><span><span>t</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>2</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span>)</span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span></span><span></span><span>=</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span></span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>1</span><span></span><span>+</span><span></span><span><span>t</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>2</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span><span></span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span>3</span><span></span><span>+</span><span></span><span><span>t</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>2</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span></span><span>,</span><span></span><span></span><span>d</span><span>x</span><span></span><span>=</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span></span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>1</span><span></span><span>+</span><span></span><span><span>t</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>2</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span><span></span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span>2</span><span></span><span>d</span><span>t</span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span></span><span>.</span></span></span></span></span><span><span><span>原式=∫23+t2 dt=23arctan⁡t3+C=23arctan⁡(13tan⁡x2)+C.\text{原式}=\int\frac{2}{3+t^2}\,\mathrm dt=\frac{2}{\sqrt3}\arctan\frac{t}{\sqrt3}+C=\boxed{\frac{2}{\sqrt3}\arctan\left(\frac{1}{\sqrt3}\tan\frac x2\right)+C}.</span><span><span><span></span><span><span>原式</span></span><span></span><span>=</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>∫</span><span></span><span><span></span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>3</span><span></span><span>+</span><span></span><span><span>t</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>2</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span><span></span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span>2</span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span></span><span></span><span>d</span><span>t</span><span></span><span>=</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span></span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span>3</span></span><span><span></span><span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span><span></span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span>2</span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span></span><span></span><span>arctan</span><span></span><span><span></span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span>3</span></span><span><span></span><span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span><span></span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span>t</span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span></span><span></span><span>+</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>C</span><span></span><span>=</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span>3</span></span><span><span></span><span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span><span></span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span>2</span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span></span><span></span><span>arctan</span><span></span><span><span><span>(</span></span><span><span></span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span>3</span></span><span><span></span><span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span><span></span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span>1</span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span></span><span></span><span>tan</span><span></span><span><span></span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>2</span></span></span><span><span></span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span>x</span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span></span><span><span>)</span></span></span><span></span><span>+</span><span></span><span>C</span></span></span></span></span><span><span></span><span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span><span>.</span></span></span></span></span></section><section><h3>题型 8：分段函数的不定积分<a href="#题型-8分段函数的不定积分"><span>#</span></a></h3><p><strong>解法</strong>：每一段分别积分，然后<strong>利用原函数在分段点处连续</strong>，确定各段常数之间的关系，最后只保留一个任意常数 <span><span>CC</span><span><span><span></span><span>C</span></span></span></span>。</p><p><strong>例 19</strong> 求 <span><span>∫e∣x∣ dx\displaystyle\int e^{\lvert x\rvert}\,\mathrm dx</span><span><span><span></span><span>∫</span><span></span><span><span>e</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span>∣</span><span>x</span><span>∣</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span><span>d</span><span>x</span></span></span></span>。</p><p><strong>解</strong> 分段积分：</p><span><span><span>F(x)={ex+C1,x≥0−e−x+C2,x&lt;0F(x)=\begin{cases}e^x+C_1,&amp;x\ge0\\-e^{-x}+C_2,&amp;x&lt;0\end{cases}</span><span><span><span></span><span>F</span><span>(</span><span>x</span><span>)</span><span></span><span>=</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span><span>{</span></span><span><span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span>e</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>x</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span><span>+</span><span></span><span><span>C</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>1</span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span>,</span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span>−</span><span><span>e</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span>−</span><span>x</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span><span>+</span><span></span><span><span>C</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>2</span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span>,</span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>x</span><span></span><span>≥</span><span></span><span>0</span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span>x</span><span></span><span>&lt;</span><span></span><span>0</span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span></span></span></span></span></span><p>原函数可导，所以一定连续。在 <span><span>x=0x=0</span><span><span><span></span><span>x</span><span></span><span>=</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>0</span></span></span></span> 处：<span><span>1+C1=−1+C21+C_1=-1+C_2</span><span><span><span></span><span>1</span><span></span><span>+</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span>C</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>1</span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span><span>=</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>−</span><span>1</span><span></span><span>+</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span>C</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>2</span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span>，即 <span><span>C2=C1+2C_2=C_1+2</span><span><span><span></span><span><span>C</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>2</span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span><span>=</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span>C</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>1</span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span><span>+</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>2</span></span></span></span>。记 <span><span>C1=CC_1=C</span><span><span><span></span><span><span>C</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>1</span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span><span>=</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>C</span></span></span></span>，</p><span><span><span>∫e∣x∣ dx={ex+C,x≥0−e−x+2+C,x&lt;0\int e^{\lvert x\rvert}\,\mathrm dx=\boxed{\begin{cases}e^x+C,&amp;x\ge0\\-e^{-x}+2+C,&amp;x&lt;0\end{cases}}</span><span><span><span></span><span>∫</span><span></span><span><span>e</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span>∣</span><span>x</span><span>∣</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span><span>d</span><span>x</span><span></span><span>=</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span><span><span><span>{</span></span><span><span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span>e</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>x</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span><span>+</span><span></span><span>C</span><span>,</span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span>−</span><span><span>e</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span>−</span><span>x</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span><span>+</span><span></span><span>2</span><span></span><span>+</span><span></span><span>C</span><span>,</span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>x</span><span></span><span>≥</span><span></span><span>0</span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span>x</span><span></span><span>&lt;</span><span></span><span>0</span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span><span></span><span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><div><div><div></div><div>最常见的错误</div></div><div><p>两段各写一个独立的 <span><span>CC</span><span><span><span></span><span>C</span></span></span></span>，或者两段用同一个 <span><span>CC</span><span><span><span></span><span>C</span></span></span></span> 但没检查连续性。这样得到的“原函数”在分段点处不连续，也就不可导，不是原函数。</p></div></div></section><section><h3>题型 9：抽象函数与原函数的关系<a href="#题型-9抽象函数与原函数的关系"><span>#</span></a></h3><p><strong>例 20</strong> 已知 <span><span>f(x)f(x)</span><span><span><span></span><span>f</span><span>(</span><span>x</span><span>)</span></span></span></span> 的一个原函数是 <span><span>e−x2e^{-x^2}</span><span><span><span></span><span><span>e</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span>−</span><span><span>x</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>2</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span>，求 <span><span>∫xf′(x) dx\displaystyle\int xf'(x)\,\mathrm dx</span><span><span><span></span><span>∫</span><span></span><span>x</span><span><span>f</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span>′</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span>(</span><span>x</span><span>)</span><span></span><span>d</span><span>x</span></span></span></span>。</p><p><strong>解</strong> 由题意 <span><span>f(x)=(e−x2)′=−2xe−x2f(x)=\left(e^{-x^2}\right)'=-2xe^{-x^2}</span><span><span><span></span><span>f</span><span>(</span><span>x</span><span>)</span><span></span><span>=</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span><span><span>(</span></span><span><span>e</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span>−</span><span><span>x</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>2</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span><span>)</span></span></span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span>′</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span><span>=</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>−</span><span>2</span><span>x</span><span><span>e</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span>−</span><span><span>x</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>2</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span>。对所求积分分部：</p><span><span><span>∫xf′(x) dx=xf(x)−∫f(x) dx=−2x2e−x2−e−x2+C.\int xf'(x)\,\mathrm dx=xf(x)-\int f(x)\,\mathrm dx=-2x^2e^{-x^2}-e^{-x^2}+C.</span><span><span><span></span><span>∫</span><span></span><span>x</span><span><span>f</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span>′</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span>(</span><span>x</span><span>)</span><span></span><span>d</span><span>x</span><span></span><span>=</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>x</span><span>f</span><span>(</span><span>x</span><span>)</span><span></span><span>−</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>∫</span><span></span><span>f</span><span>(</span><span>x</span><span>)</span><span></span><span>d</span><span>x</span><span></span><span>=</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>−</span><span>2</span><span><span>x</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>2</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span><span>e</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span>−</span><span><span>x</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>2</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span><span>−</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span>e</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span>−</span><span><span>x</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>2</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span><span>+</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>C</span><span>.</span></span></span></span></span><div><div><div></div><div>见到 <span><span>f′f'</span><span><span><span></span><span><span>f</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span>′</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span> 就分部</div></div><div><p>被积函数中有 <span><span>f′(x)f'(x)</span><span><span><span></span><span><span>f</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span>′</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span>(</span><span>x</span><span>)</span></span></span></span> 或 <span><span>f′′(x)f''(x)</span><span><span><span></span><span><span>f</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span>′′</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span>(</span><span>x</span><span>)</span></span></span></span> 时，把它凑进 <span><span>dv\mathrm dv</span><span><span><span></span><span>d</span><span>v</span></span></span></span> 做分部积分，就能降一阶。</p></div></div><p><strong>例 21</strong> 设 <span><span>f′(ln⁡x)=1+xf'(\ln x)=1+x</span><span><span><span></span><span><span>f</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span>′</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span>(</span><span>ln</span><span></span><span>x</span><span>)</span><span></span><span>=</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>1</span><span></span><span>+</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>x</span></span></span></span>，求 <span><span>f(x)f(x)</span><span><span><span></span><span>f</span><span>(</span><span>x</span><span>)</span></span></span></span>。</p><p><strong>解</strong> 令 <span><span>t=ln⁡xt=\ln x</span><span><span><span></span><span>t</span><span></span><span>=</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>ln</span><span></span><span>x</span></span></span></span>，则 <span><span>x=etx=e^t</span><span><span><span></span><span>x</span><span></span><span>=</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span>e</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>t</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span>，<span><span>f′(t)=1+etf'(t)=1+e^t</span><span><span><span></span><span><span>f</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span>′</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span>(</span><span>t</span><span>)</span><span></span><span>=</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>1</span><span></span><span>+</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span>e</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>t</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span>。所以</p><span><span><span>f(t)=t+et+C,即 f(x)=x+ex+C.f(t)=t+e^t+C,\qquad\text{即}\ \boxed{f(x)=x+e^x+C}.</span><span><span><span></span><span>f</span><span>(</span><span>t</span><span>)</span><span></span><span>=</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>t</span><span></span><span>+</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span>e</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>t</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span><span>+</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>C</span><span>,</span><span></span><span></span><span><span>即</span></span><span> </span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span><span>f</span><span>(</span><span>x</span><span>)</span><span></span><span>=</span><span></span><span>x</span><span></span><span>+</span><span></span><span><span>e</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>x</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span><span>+</span><span></span><span>C</span></span></span></span></span><span><span></span><span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span><span>.</span></span></span></span></span><p><strong>例 22（选择题）</strong> 下列函数在 <span><span>(−1,1)(-1,1)</span><span><span><span></span><span>(</span><span>−</span><span>1</span><span>,</span><span></span><span>1</span><span>)</span></span></span></span> 上<strong>没有</strong>原函数的是：</p><ul>
<li>(A) <span><span>f(x)=∣x∣f(x)=\lvert x\rvert</span><span><span><span></span><span>f</span><span>(</span><span>x</span><span>)</span><span></span><span>=</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>∣</span><span>x</span><span>∣</span></span></span></span></li>
<li>(B) <span><span>f(x)={x+1,x≥0x,x&lt;0f(x)=\begin{cases}x+1,&amp;x\ge0\\x,&amp;x&lt;0\end{cases}</span><span><span><span></span><span>f</span><span>(</span><span>x</span><span>)</span><span></span><span>=</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span><span>{</span></span><span><span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>x</span><span></span><span>+</span><span></span><span>1</span><span>,</span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span>x</span><span>,</span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>x</span><span></span><span>≥</span><span></span><span>0</span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span>x</span><span></span><span>&lt;</span><span></span><span>0</span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span></span></span></span></span></li>
<li>(C) <span><span>f(x)={2xsin⁡1x−cos⁡1x,x≠00,x=0f(x)=\begin{cases}2x\sin\dfrac1x-\cos\dfrac1x,&amp;x\ne0\\0,&amp;x=0\end{cases}</span><span><span><span></span><span>f</span><span>(</span><span>x</span><span>)</span><span></span><span>=</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>⎩</span></span></span><span><span></span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span>⎨</span></span></span><span><span></span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span>⎧</span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span><span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>2</span><span>x</span><span></span><span>sin</span><span></span><span><span></span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>x</span></span></span><span><span></span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span>1</span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span></span><span></span><span>−</span><span></span><span>cos</span><span></span><span><span></span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>x</span></span></span><span><span></span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span>1</span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span></span><span>,</span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span>0</span><span>,</span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>x</span><span></span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span><span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span><span>=</span></span><span></span><span>0</span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span>x</span><span></span><span>=</span><span></span><span>0</span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span></span></span></span></span></li>
<li>(D) <span><span>f(x)=sin⁡xf(x)=\sin x</span><span><span><span></span><span>f</span><span>(</span><span>x</span><span>)</span><span></span><span>=</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>sin</span><span></span><span>x</span></span></span></span></li>
</ul><p><strong>解</strong> (A)、(D) 连续，有原函数。(C) 是 <span><span>x2sin⁡1xx^2\sin\frac1x</span><span><span><span></span><span><span>x</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>2</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span><span>sin</span><span></span><span><span></span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span>x</span></span></span></span><span><span></span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span><span>1</span></span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span></span></span></span></span> 的导数，有原函数。(B) 在 <span><span>x=0x=0</span><span><span><span></span><span>x</span><span></span><span>=</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>0</span></span></span></span> 处有<strong>跳跃间断点</strong>，没有原函数。答案为 <span><span>B\boxed{\text{B}}</span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span><span><span>B</span></span></span></span></span></span><span><span></span><span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span>。</p></section></section>
<section><h2>五、证明思路<a href="#五证明思路"><span>#</span></a></h2><section><h3>1. 换元法就是链式法则倒过来<a href="#1-换元法就是链式法则倒过来"><span>#</span></a></h3><p>设 <span><span>F′(u)=f(u)F'(u)=f(u)</span><span><span><span></span><span><span>F</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span>′</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span>(</span><span>u</span><span>)</span><span></span><span>=</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>f</span><span>(</span><span>u</span><span>)</span></span></span></span>，由链式法则</p><span><span><span>ddxF(φ(x))=f(φ(x))φ′(x),\frac{\mathrm d}{\mathrm dx}F\bigl(\varphi(x)\bigr)=f\bigl(\varphi(x)\bigr)\varphi'(x),</span><span><span><span></span><span><span></span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>d</span><span>x</span></span></span><span><span></span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span>d</span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span></span><span>F</span><span><span>(</span></span><span>φ</span><span>(</span><span>x</span><span>)</span><span><span>)</span></span><span></span><span>=</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>f</span><span><span>(</span></span><span>φ</span><span>(</span><span>x</span><span>)</span><span><span>)</span></span><span><span>φ</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span>′</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span>(</span><span>x</span><span>)</span><span>,</span></span></span></span></span><p>所以 <span><span>F(φ(x))F\bigl(\varphi(x)\bigr)</span><span><span><span></span><span>F</span><span><span>(</span></span><span>φ</span><span>(</span><span>x</span><span>)</span><span><span>)</span></span></span></span></span> 就是 <span><span>f(φ(x))φ′(x)f\bigl(\varphi(x)\bigr)\varphi'(x)</span><span><span><span></span><span>f</span><span><span>(</span></span><span>φ</span><span>(</span><span>x</span><span>)</span><span><span>)</span></span><span><span>φ</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span>′</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span>(</span><span>x</span><span>)</span></span></span></span> 的原函数。</p><p>第二换元法反过来用：令 <span><span>x=ψ(t)x=\psi(t)</span><span><span><span></span><span>x</span><span></span><span>=</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>ψ</span><span>(</span><span>t</span><span>)</span></span></span></span>，要求 <span><span>ψ\psi</span><span><span><span></span><span>ψ</span></span></span></span> <strong>单调可导</strong>，才能保证最后能用反函数 <span><span>t=ψ−1(x)t=\psi^{-1}(x)</span><span><span><span></span><span>t</span><span></span><span>=</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span>ψ</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span>−</span><span>1</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span>(</span><span>x</span><span>)</span></span></span></span> 回代。这就是三角代换要限制 <span><span>tt</span><span><span><span></span><span>t</span></span></span></span> 的范围的原因。</p></section><section><h3>2. 分部积分就是乘积法则倒过来<a href="#2-分部积分就是乘积法则倒过来"><span>#</span></a></h3><p><span><span>(uv)′=u′v+uv′(uv)'=u'v+uv'</span><span><span><span></span><span>(</span><span>uv</span><span><span>)</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span>′</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span><span>=</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span>u</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span>′</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span>v</span><span></span><span>+</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>u</span><span><span>v</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span>′</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span>，两边积分：</p><span><span><span>uv=∫v du+∫u dv ⟹ ∫u dv=uv−∫v du.uv=\int v\,\mathrm du+\int u\,\mathrm dv\ \Longrightarrow\ \int u\,\mathrm dv=uv-\int v\,\mathrm du.</span><span><span><span></span><span>uv</span><span></span><span>=</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>∫</span><span></span><span>v</span><span></span><span>d</span><span>u</span><span></span><span>+</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>∫</span><span></span><span>u</span><span></span><span>d</span><span>v</span><span> </span><span></span><span>⟹</span><span> </span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>∫</span><span></span><span>u</span><span></span><span>d</span><span>v</span><span></span><span>=</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>uv</span><span></span><span>−</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>∫</span><span></span><span>v</span><span></span><span>d</span><span>u</span><span>.</span></span></span></span></span><p>“反对幂指三”的道理：反三角和对数求导后变成代数式，变简单了，所以适合当 <span><span>uu</span><span><span><span></span><span>u</span></span></span></span>；指数和三角积分后形式不变，所以适合凑进 <span><span>dv\mathrm dv</span><span><span><span></span><span>d</span><span>v</span></span></span></span>。</p></section><section><h3>3. 有第一类间断点的函数没有原函数<a href="#3-有第一类间断点的函数没有原函数"><span>#</span></a></h3><p>设 <span><span>F′=fF'=f</span><span><span><span></span><span><span>F</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span>′</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span><span>=</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>f</span></span></span></span> 在区间上处处成立，<span><span>x0x_0</span><span><span><span></span><span><span>x</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>0</span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span> 是 <span><span>ff</span><span><span><span></span><span>f</span></span></span></span> 的第一类间断点。</p><p>由拉格朗日中值定理，<span><span>x&lt;x0x&lt;x_0</span><span><span><span></span><span>x</span><span></span><span>&lt;</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span>x</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>0</span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span> 时</p><span><span><span>F(x)−F(x0)x−x0=F′(ξ)=f(ξ),x&lt;ξ&lt;x0.\frac{F(x)-F(x_0)}{x-x_0}=F'(\xi)=f(\xi),\quad x&lt;\xi&lt;x_0.</span><span><span><span></span><span><span></span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>x</span><span></span><span>−</span><span></span><span><span>x</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>0</span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span><span></span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span>F</span><span>(</span><span>x</span><span>)</span><span></span><span>−</span><span></span><span>F</span><span>(</span><span><span>x</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>0</span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span>)</span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span></span><span></span><span>=</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span>F</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span>′</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span>(</span><span>ξ</span><span>)</span><span></span><span>=</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>f</span><span>(</span><span>ξ</span><span>)</span><span>,</span><span></span><span></span><span>x</span><span></span><span>&lt;</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>ξ</span><span></span><span>&lt;</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span>x</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>0</span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span>.</span></span></span></span></span><p>令 <span><span>x→x0−x\to x_0^-</span><span><span><span></span><span>x</span><span></span><span>→</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span>x</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>0</span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span>−</span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span>，得 <span><span>F−′(x0)=lim⁡x→x0−f(x)F'_-(x_0)=\lim\limits_{x\to x_0^-}f(x)</span><span><span><span></span><span><span>F</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>−</span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span><span>′</span></span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span>(</span><span><span>x</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>0</span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span>)</span><span></span><span>=</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span>x</span><span>→</span><span><span>x</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>0</span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span>−</span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span>lim</span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span><span>f</span><span>(</span><span>x</span><span>)</span></span></span></span>。同理 <span><span>F+′(x0)=lim⁡x→x0+f(x)F'_+(x_0)=\lim\limits_{x\to x_0^+}f(x)</span><span><span><span></span><span><span>F</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>+</span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span><span>′</span></span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span>(</span><span><span>x</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>0</span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span>)</span><span></span><span>=</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span>x</span><span>→</span><span><span>x</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>0</span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span>+</span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span>lim</span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span><span>f</span><span>(</span><span>x</span><span>)</span></span></span></span>。</p><ul>
<li>跳跃间断：左右极限不相等，于是 <span><span>FF</span><span><span><span></span><span>F</span></span></span></span> 在 <span><span>x0x_0</span><span><span><span></span><span><span>x</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>0</span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span> 处左右导数不相等，<span><span>FF</span><span><span><span></span><span>F</span></span></span></span> 不可导，矛盾。</li>
<li>可去间断：左右极限相等但不等于 <span><span>f(x0)f(x_0)</span><span><span><span></span><span>f</span><span>(</span><span><span>x</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>0</span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span>)</span></span></span></span>，于是 <span><span>F′(x0)≠f(x0)F'(x_0)\ne f(x_0)</span><span><span><span></span><span><span>F</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span>′</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span>(</span><span><span>x</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>0</span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span>)</span><span></span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span><span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span><span>=</span></span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>f</span><span>(</span><span><span>x</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>0</span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span>)</span></span></span></span>，矛盾。</li>
</ul><p>一句话：<strong>导函数要么连续，要么有第二类间断点，不会有第一类间断点。</strong></p></section><section><h3>4. 连续函数必有原函数<a href="#4-连续函数必有原函数"><span>#</span></a></h3><p>构造 <span><span>F(x)=∫axf(t) dtF(x)=\displaystyle\int_a^xf(t)\,\mathrm dt</span><span><span><span></span><span>F</span><span>(</span><span>x</span><span>)</span><span></span><span>=</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span>∫</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>a</span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span>x</span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span><span>f</span><span>(</span><span>t</span><span>)</span><span></span><span>d</span><span>t</span></span></span></span>，第 06 篇会证明 <span><span>F′(x)=f(x)F'(x)=f(x)</span><span><span><span></span><span><span>F</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span>′</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span>(</span><span>x</span><span>)</span><span></span><span>=</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>f</span><span>(</span><span>x</span><span>)</span></span></span></span>。</p></section><section><h3>5. 留数法为什么成立<a href="#5-留数法为什么成立"><span>#</span></a></h3><p>以 <span><span>x+3(x−2)(x−3)=Ax−2+Bx−3\dfrac{x+3}{(x-2)(x-3)}=\dfrac{A}{x-2}+\dfrac{B}{x-3}</span><span><span><span></span><span><span></span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>(</span><span>x</span><span></span><span>−</span><span></span><span>2</span><span>)</span><span>(</span><span>x</span><span></span><span>−</span><span></span><span>3</span><span>)</span></span></span><span><span></span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span>x</span><span></span><span>+</span><span></span><span>3</span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span></span><span></span><span>=</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span></span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>x</span><span></span><span>−</span><span></span><span>2</span></span></span><span><span></span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span>A</span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span></span><span></span><span>+</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span></span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>x</span><span></span><span>−</span><span></span><span>3</span></span></span><span><span></span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span>B</span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span></span></span></span></span> 为例，两边同乘 <span><span>x−2x-2</span><span><span><span></span><span>x</span><span></span><span>−</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>2</span></span></span></span>：</p><span><span><span>x+3x−3=A+B(x−2)x−3.\frac{x+3}{x-3}=A+\frac{B(x-2)}{x-3}.</span><span><span><span></span><span><span></span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>x</span><span></span><span>−</span><span></span><span>3</span></span></span><span><span></span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span>x</span><span></span><span>+</span><span></span><span>3</span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span></span><span></span><span>=</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>A</span><span></span><span>+</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span></span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>x</span><span></span><span>−</span><span></span><span>3</span></span></span><span><span></span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span>B</span><span>(</span><span>x</span><span></span><span>−</span><span></span><span>2</span><span>)</span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span></span><span>.</span></span></span></span></span><p>令 <span><span>x=2x=2</span><span><span><span></span><span>x</span><span></span><span>=</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>2</span></span></span></span>，右边第二项为 <span><span>00</span><span><span><span></span><span>0</span></span></span></span>，就得到 <span><span>AA</span><span><span><span></span><span>A</span></span></span></span>。</p></section></section>
<section><h2>六、易错点<a href="#六易错点"><span>#</span></a></h2><div><div><div></div><div>积分结果的形式可以不同</div></div><div><p><span><span>∫sin⁡xcos⁡x dx\displaystyle\int\sin x\cos x\,\mathrm dx</span><span><span><span></span><span>∫</span><span></span><span>sin</span><span></span><span>x</span><span></span><span>cos</span><span></span><span>x</span><span></span><span>d</span><span>x</span></span></span></span> 可以算出 <span><span>sin⁡2x2\dfrac{\sin^2x}{2}</span><span><span><span></span><span><span></span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>2</span></span></span><span><span></span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span><span>sin</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>2</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span><span>x</span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span></span></span></span></span>、<span><span>−cos⁡2x2-\dfrac{\cos^2x}{2}</span><span><span><span></span><span>−</span><span><span></span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>2</span></span></span><span><span></span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span><span>cos</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>2</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span><span>x</span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span></span></span></span></span> 或 <span><span>−cos⁡2x4-\dfrac{\cos2x}{4}</span><span><span><span></span><span>−</span><span><span></span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>4</span></span></span><span><span></span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span>cos</span><span></span><span>2</span><span>x</span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span></span></span></span></span>（各加 <span><span>CC</span><span><span><span></span><span>C</span></span></span></span>）。三者之间只差常数，<strong>都对</strong>。检验方法是对结果求导，看能不能还原成被积函数。</p></div></div><ul>
<li><strong>忘记加 <span><span>CC</span><span><span><span></span><span>C</span></span></span></span></strong>，或循环积分中 <span><span>CC</span><span><span><span></span><span>C</span></span></span></span> 加的位置不对。</li>
<li><strong><span><span>ln⁡\ln</span><span><span><span></span><span>ln</span></span></span></span> 忘记加绝对值</strong>：<span><span>∫dxx=ln⁡∣x∣+C\displaystyle\int\frac{\mathrm dx}{x}=\ln\lvert x\rvert+C</span><span><span><span></span><span>∫</span><span></span><span><span></span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>x</span></span></span><span><span></span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span>d</span><span>x</span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span></span><span></span><span>=</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>ln</span><span>∣</span><span>x</span><span>∣</span><span></span><span>+</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>C</span></span></span></span>。像 <span><span>ln⁡(1+x2)\ln(1+x^2)</span><span><span><span></span><span>ln</span><span>(</span><span>1</span><span></span><span>+</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span>x</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>2</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span>)</span></span></span></span>、<span><span>ln⁡(1+ex)\ln(1+e^x)</span><span><span><span></span><span>ln</span><span>(</span><span>1</span><span></span><span>+</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span>e</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>x</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span>)</span></span></span></span> 里面恒正，可以不加。</li>
<li><strong>换元后忘记回代</strong>：最后结果必须是 <span><span>xx</span><span><span><span></span><span>x</span></span></span></span> 的函数。</li>
<li><strong>凑微分漏系数</strong>：<span><span>∫e2x dx=12e2x+C\displaystyle\int e^{2x}\,\mathrm dx=\frac12e^{2x}+C</span><span><span><span></span><span>∫</span><span></span><span><span>e</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span>2</span><span>x</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span><span>d</span><span>x</span><span></span><span>=</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span></span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>2</span></span></span><span><span></span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span>1</span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span></span><span><span>e</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span>2</span><span>x</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span><span>+</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>C</span></span></span></span>，不是 <span><span>e2x+Ce^{2x}+C</span><span><span><span></span><span><span>e</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span>2</span><span>x</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span><span>+</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>C</span></span></span></span>。</li>
<li><strong>假分式没先做除法</strong>就拆部分分式。</li>
<li><strong>部分分式少写项</strong>：<span><span>(x−1)2(x-1)^2</span><span><span><span></span><span>(</span><span>x</span><span></span><span>−</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>1</span><span><span>)</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>2</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span> 要对应两项；<span><span>x2+1x^2+1</span><span><span><span></span><span><span>x</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>2</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span><span>+</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>1</span></span></span></span> 的分子是 <span><span>Bx+CBx+C</span><span><span><span></span><span>B</span><span>x</span><span></span><span>+</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>C</span></span></span></span>，不是常数。</li>
<li><strong>分段函数的原函数不连续</strong>。</li>
<li><strong>以为初等函数的原函数都是初等函数</strong>：<span><span>e−x2e^{-x^2}</span><span><span><span></span><span><span>e</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span>−</span><span><span>x</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>2</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span>、<span><span>sin⁡xx\dfrac{\sin x}{x}</span><span><span><span></span><span><span></span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>x</span></span></span><span><span></span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span>sin</span><span></span><span>x</span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span></span></span></span></span>、<span><span>1ln⁡x\dfrac{1}{\ln x}</span><span><span><span></span><span><span></span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>ln</span><span></span><span>x</span></span></span><span><span></span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span>1</span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span></span></span></span></span> 的原函数存在，但不能用初等函数表示（俗称“积不出来”）。</li>
</ul></section>
<section><h2>七、小练习<a href="#七小练习"><span>#</span></a></h2><p><strong>1.</strong> 求 <span><span>∫dxxln⁡x ln⁡(ln⁡x)\displaystyle\int\frac{\mathrm dx}{x\ln x\,\ln(\ln x)}</span><span><span><span></span><span>∫</span><span></span><span><span></span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>x</span><span></span><span>ln</span><span></span><span>x</span><span></span><span></span><span>ln</span><span>(</span><span>ln</span><span></span><span>x</span><span>)</span></span></span><span><span></span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span>d</span><span>x</span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span></span></span></span></span>。</p>
点击查看答案<p>连续凑微分：<span><span>dxx=d(ln⁡x)\dfrac{\mathrm dx}{x}=\mathrm d(\ln x)</span><span><span><span></span><span><span></span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>x</span></span></span><span><span></span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span>d</span><span>x</span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span></span><span></span><span>=</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>d</span><span>(</span><span>ln</span><span></span><span>x</span><span>)</span></span></span></span>，<span><span>d(ln⁡x)ln⁡x=d(ln⁡(ln⁡x))\dfrac{\mathrm d(\ln x)}{\ln x}=\mathrm d\bigl(\ln(\ln x)\bigr)</span><span><span><span></span><span><span></span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>ln</span><span></span><span>x</span></span></span><span><span></span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span>d</span><span>(</span><span>ln</span><span></span><span>x</span><span>)</span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span></span><span></span><span>=</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>d</span><span><span>(</span></span><span>ln</span><span>(</span><span>ln</span><span></span><span>x</span><span>)</span><span><span>)</span></span></span></span></span>。</p><p>原式 <span><span>=∫d(ln⁡(ln⁡x))ln⁡(ln⁡x)=ln⁡∣ln⁡(ln⁡x)∣+C=\displaystyle\int\frac{\mathrm d\bigl(\ln(\ln x)\bigr)}{\ln(\ln x)}=\ln\bigl\lvert\ln(\ln x)\bigr\rvert+C</span><span><span><span></span><span>=</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>∫</span><span></span><span><span></span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>ln</span><span>(</span><span>ln</span><span></span><span>x</span><span>)</span></span></span><span><span></span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span>d</span><span><span>(</span></span><span>ln</span><span>(</span><span>ln</span><span></span><span>x</span><span>)</span><span><span>)</span></span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span></span><span></span><span>=</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>ln</span><span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span>ln</span><span>(</span><span>ln</span><span></span><span>x</span><span>)</span><span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span><span>+</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>C</span></span></span></span>。</p><p><strong>2.</strong> 求 <span><span>∫x2ex dx\displaystyle\int x^2e^x\,\mathrm dx</span><span><span><span></span><span>∫</span><span></span><span><span>x</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>2</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span><span>e</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>x</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span><span>d</span><span>x</span></span></span></span>。</p>
点击查看答案<p>表格法：求导列 <span><span>x2, 2x, 2, 0x^2,\ 2x,\ 2,\ 0</span><span><span><span></span><span><span>x</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>2</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span>,</span><span> </span><span></span><span>2</span><span>x</span><span>,</span><span> </span><span></span><span>2</span><span>,</span><span> </span><span></span><span>0</span></span></span></span>；积分列都是 <span><span>exe^x</span><span><span><span></span><span><span>e</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>x</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span>。</p><p>原式 <span><span>=x2ex−2xex+2ex+C=(x2−2x+2)ex+C=x^2e^x-2xe^x+2e^x+C=(x^2-2x+2)e^x+C</span><span><span><span></span><span>=</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span>x</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>2</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span><span>e</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>x</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span><span>−</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>2</span><span>x</span><span><span>e</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>x</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span><span>+</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>2</span><span><span>e</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>x</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span><span>+</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>C</span><span></span><span>=</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>(</span><span><span>x</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>2</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span><span>−</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>2</span><span>x</span><span></span><span>+</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>2</span><span>)</span><span><span>e</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>x</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span><span>+</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>C</span></span></span></span>。</p><p><strong>3.</strong> 求 <span><span>∫dxx(1−x)\displaystyle\int\frac{\mathrm dx}{\sqrt{x(1-x)}}</span><span><span><span></span><span>∫</span><span></span><span><span></span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>x</span><span>(</span><span>1</span><span></span><span>−</span><span></span><span>x</span><span>)</span></span></span><span><span></span><span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span><span></span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span>d</span><span>x</span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span></span></span></span></span>。</p>
点击查看答案<p>令 <span><span>t=xt=\sqrt x</span><span><span><span></span><span>t</span><span></span><span>=</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span>x</span></span><span><span></span><span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span>，<span><span>x=t2x=t^2</span><span><span><span></span><span>x</span><span></span><span>=</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span>t</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>2</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span>，<span><span>dx=2t dt\mathrm dx=2t\,\mathrm dt</span><span><span><span></span><span>d</span><span>x</span><span></span><span>=</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>2</span><span>t</span><span></span><span>d</span><span>t</span></span></span></span>：</p><p><span><span>∫2tt1−t2 dt=2arcsin⁡t+C=2arcsin⁡x+C.\int\frac{2t}{t\sqrt{1-t^2}}\,\mathrm dt=2\arcsin t+C=2\arcsin\sqrt x+C.</span><span><span><span></span><span>∫</span><span></span><span><span></span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span>t</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>1</span><span>−</span><span><span>t</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>2</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span><span></span><span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span><span></span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span><span>2</span><span>t</span></span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span></span><span></span><span>d</span><span>t</span><span></span><span>=</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>2</span><span></span><span>arcsin</span><span></span><span>t</span><span></span><span>+</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>C</span><span></span><span>=</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>2</span><span></span><span>arcsin</span><span></span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span>x</span></span><span><span></span><span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span><span>+</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>C</span><span>.</span></span></span></span></p><p><strong>4.</strong> 求 <span><span>∫2x+3x2+2x+2 dx\displaystyle\int\frac{2x+3}{x^2+2x+2}\,\mathrm dx</span><span><span><span></span><span>∫</span><span></span><span><span></span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span>x</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>2</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span><span>+</span><span></span><span>2</span><span>x</span><span></span><span>+</span><span></span><span>2</span></span></span><span><span></span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span>2</span><span>x</span><span></span><span>+</span><span></span><span>3</span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span></span><span></span><span>d</span><span>x</span></span></span></span>。</p>
点击查看答案<p>分子拆成“分母的导数 + 常数”：<span><span>2x+3=(2x+2)+12x+3=(2x+2)+1</span><span><span><span></span><span>2</span><span>x</span><span></span><span>+</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>3</span><span></span><span>=</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>(</span><span>2</span><span>x</span><span></span><span>+</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>2</span><span>)</span><span></span><span>+</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>1</span></span></span></span>。</p><p><span><span>∫2x+2x2+2x+2 dx+∫dx(x+1)2+1=ln⁡(x2+2x+2)+arctan⁡(x+1)+C.\int\frac{2x+2}{x^2+2x+2}\,\mathrm dx+\int\frac{\mathrm dx}{(x+1)^2+1}=\ln(x^2+2x+2)+\arctan(x+1)+C.</span><span><span><span></span><span>∫</span><span></span><span><span></span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span><span>x</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>2</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span>+</span><span>2</span><span>x</span><span>+</span><span>2</span></span></span></span><span><span></span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span><span>2</span><span>x</span><span>+</span><span>2</span></span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span></span><span></span><span>d</span><span>x</span><span></span><span>+</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>∫</span><span></span><span><span></span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span>(</span><span>x</span><span>+</span><span>1</span><span><span>)</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>2</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span>+</span><span>1</span></span></span></span><span><span></span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span><span>d</span><span>x</span></span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span></span><span></span><span>=</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>ln</span><span>(</span><span><span>x</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>2</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span><span>+</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>2</span><span>x</span><span></span><span>+</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>2</span><span>)</span><span></span><span>+</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>arctan</span><span>(</span><span>x</span><span></span><span>+</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>1</span><span>)</span><span></span><span>+</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>C</span><span>.</span></span></span></span></p><p><strong>5.</strong> 求 <span><span>∫e2xcos⁡x dx\displaystyle\int e^{2x}\cos x\,\mathrm dx</span><span><span><span></span><span>∫</span><span></span><span><span>e</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span>2</span><span>x</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span><span>cos</span><span></span><span>x</span><span></span><span>d</span><span>x</span></span></span></span>。</p>
点击查看答案<p>记为 <span><span>II</span><span><span><span></span><span>I</span></span></span></span>，两次分部都把 <span><span>e2xe^{2x}</span><span><span><span></span><span><span>e</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span>2</span><span>x</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span> 凑进 <span><span>dv\mathrm dv</span><span><span><span></span><span>d</span><span>v</span></span></span></span>：</p><p><span><span>I=12e2xcos⁡x+12∫e2xsin⁡x dx=12e2xcos⁡x+14e2xsin⁡x−14I.I=\frac12e^{2x}\cos x+\frac12\int e^{2x}\sin x\,\mathrm dx=\frac12e^{2x}\cos x+\frac14e^{2x}\sin x-\frac14I.</span><span><span><span></span><span>I</span><span></span><span>=</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span></span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span>2</span></span></span></span><span><span></span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span><span>1</span></span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span></span><span><span>e</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span>2</span><span>x</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span><span>cos</span><span></span><span>x</span><span></span><span>+</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span></span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span>2</span></span></span></span><span><span></span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span><span>1</span></span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span></span><span></span><span>∫</span><span></span><span><span>e</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span>2</span><span>x</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span><span>sin</span><span></span><span>x</span><span></span><span>d</span><span>x</span><span></span><span>=</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span></span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span>2</span></span></span></span><span><span></span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span><span>1</span></span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span></span><span><span>e</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span>2</span><span>x</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span><span>cos</span><span></span><span>x</span><span></span><span>+</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span></span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span>4</span></span></span></span><span><span></span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span><span>1</span></span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span></span><span><span>e</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span>2</span><span>x</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span><span>sin</span><span></span><span>x</span><span></span><span>−</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span></span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span>4</span></span></span></span><span><span></span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span><span>1</span></span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span></span><span>I</span><span>.</span></span></span></span></p><p>移项得 <span><span>54I=e2x4(2cos⁡x+sin⁡x)\dfrac54I=\dfrac{e^{2x}}{4}(2\cos x+\sin x)</span><span><span><span></span><span><span></span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>4</span></span></span><span><span></span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span>5</span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span></span><span>I</span><span></span><span>=</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span></span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>4</span></span></span><span><span></span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span><span>e</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span>2</span><span>x</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span></span><span>(</span><span>2</span><span></span><span>cos</span><span></span><span>x</span><span></span><span>+</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>sin</span><span></span><span>x</span><span>)</span></span></span></span>，所以</p><p><span><span>I=e2x5(2cos⁡x+sin⁡x)+C.I=\frac{e^{2x}}{5}(2\cos x+\sin x)+C.</span><span><span><span></span><span>I</span><span></span><span>=</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span></span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span>5</span></span></span></span><span><span></span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span><span><span>e</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span>2</span><span>x</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span></span><span>(</span><span>2</span><span></span><span>cos</span><span></span><span>x</span><span></span><span>+</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>sin</span><span></span><span>x</span><span>)</span><span></span><span>+</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>C</span><span>.</span></span></span></span></p></section>
<section><h2>八、本章小结<a href="#八本章小结"><span>#</span></a></h2><ul>
<li>连续函数一定有原函数；有<strong>第一类间断点</strong>的函数一定没有原函数。</li>
<li>方法选择顺序：<strong>恒等变形 → 凑微分 → 换元 → 分部 → 有理函数</strong>。</li>
<li>根式：<span><span>a2±x2\sqrt{a^2\pm x^2}</span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span>a</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>2</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span><span>±</span><span></span><span><span>x</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>2</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span><span></span><span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span>、<span><span>x2−a2\sqrt{x^2-a^2}</span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span>x</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>2</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span><span>−</span><span></span><span><span>a</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>2</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span><span></span><span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span> 用<strong>三角代换</strong>，回代画直角三角形；<span><span>ax+bn\sqrt[n]{ax+b}</span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span>n</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>a</span><span>x</span><span></span><span>+</span><span></span><span>b</span></span></span><span><span></span><span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span> 令整个根式为 <span><span>tt</span><span><span><span></span><span>t</span></span></span></span>。</li>
<li>分部积分按“<strong>反对幂指三</strong>”选 <span><span>uu</span><span><span><span></span><span>u</span></span></span></span>；多项式乘积用<strong>表格法</strong>；<span><span>exe^x</span><span><span><span></span><span><span>e</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>x</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span> 乘三角函数用<strong>循环积分</strong>。</li>
<li>有理函数：先除法，再分解，<strong>留数法</strong>求系数。</li>
<li>三角有理式：先试<strong>恒等变形</strong>，不行再用<strong>万能代换</strong>。</li>
<li>分段函数的原函数必须<strong>连续</strong>，只保留一个 <span><span>CC</span><span><span><span></span><span>C</span></span></span></span>。</li>
</ul><p>下一篇：<strong>06 定积分与反常积分</strong>。</p></section>]]></content>
    </entry>
    <entry>
      <id>https://gsxbxsg.github.io/posts/gaoshu-00-guide/</id>
      <title type="text">高数速成复习 00：导读与复习路线（考研数学一）</title>
      <published>2026-10-03T00:00:00.000Z</published>
      <updated>2026-10-03T00:00:00.000Z</updated>
      <author><name>ELEC</name></author>
      <link rel="alternate" href="https://gsxbxsg.github.io/posts/gaoshu-00-guide/"/>
      <summary type="text">这是一套面向考研数学一的高数速成笔记。本篇先讲清考什么、怎么复习，以及这套笔记该怎么用。</summary>
      <content type="html"><![CDATA[<p>这一篇先回答三个问题：<strong>考什么、按什么顺序复习、这套笔记怎么用</strong>。第 01 篇开始进入正文。</p>
<section><h2>一、考试基本信息（2027 考研）<a href="#一考试基本信息2027-考研"><span>#</span></a></h2>

<table><thead><tr><th>项目</th><th>内容</th></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td>预报名</td><td>2026 年 10 月 9 日 ～ 10 月 12 日</td></tr><tr><td>正式报名</td><td>2026 年 10 月 15 日 ～ 10 月 24 日</td></tr><tr><td>初试</td><td><strong>2026 年 12 月 19 日 ～ 20 日</strong></td></tr><tr><td>数学考试时长</td><td>180 分钟，满分 150 分</td></tr></tbody></table><div><div><div></div><div>信息来源</div></div><div><p>日期来自研招网发布的《2027 年全国硕士研究生招生考试公告》和教育部招生工作部署。试卷结构请以当年官方考试大纲为准。</p></div></div><section><h3>数一试卷结构（近年常见形式）<a href="#数一试卷结构近年常见形式"><span>#</span></a></h3>

<table><thead><tr><th>题型</th><th>题量</th><th>分值</th></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td>单项选择题</td><td>10 题</td><td>50 分</td></tr><tr><td>填空题</td><td>6 题</td><td>30 分</td></tr><tr><td>解答题（含证明）</td><td>6 题</td><td>70 分</td></tr></tbody></table><p>各科大致占比：<strong>高等数学约 60%</strong>，线性代数约 20%，概率论与数理统计约 20%。也就是说，高数大约占 <strong>90 分</strong>，是拉开差距的主战场。</p></section></section>
<section><h2>二、知识地图<a href="#二知识地图"><span>#</span></a></h2><p>高数整体是“<strong>一元 → 多元</strong>”的结构，后面的内容几乎都建立在“极限、导数、积分”这三样东西上：</p><div><div><div><div><span></span></div><div><span></span></div><div><span></span></div><div><span></span></div><div><span></span></div><div><span></span></div><div><span></span></div><div><span></span></div><div><span></span></div><div><span></span></div><div><span></span></div><div><span><p>极限与连续</p></span></div><div><span><p>导数与微分</p></span></div><div><span><p>中值定理与导数应用</p></span></div><div><span><p>不定积分</p></span></div><div><span><p>定积分</p></span></div><div><span><p>常微分方程</p></span></div><div><span><p>无穷级数</p></span></div><div><span><p>多元微分</p></span></div><div><span><p>重积分</p></span></div><div><span><p>空间解析几何</p></span></div><div><span><p>曲线/曲面积分</p></span></div>
</div><div><div><span></span></div><div><span></span></div><div><span></span></div><div><span></span></div><div><span></span></div><div><span></span></div><div><span></span></div><div><span></span></div><div><span></span></div><div><span></span></div><div><span></span></div><div><span><p>极限与连续</p></span></div><div><span><p>导数与微分</p></span></div><div><span><p>中值定理与导数应用</p></span></div><div><span><p>不定积分</p></span></div><div><span><p>定积分</p></span></div><div><span><p>常微分方程</p></span></div><div><span><p>无穷级数</p></span></div><div><span><p>多元微分</p></span></div><div><span><p>重积分</p></span></div><div><span><p>空间解析几何</p></span></div><div><span><p>曲线/曲面积分</p></span></div>
</div></div></div></section>
<section><h2>三、系列目录<a href="#三系列目录"><span>#</span></a></h2><p>内容多的章节已经拆开，全系列共 16 篇加 1 篇附录：</p>

<table><thead><tr><th>#</th><th>标题</th><th>重点</th><th>考频</th></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td>00</td><td>导读与复习路线</td><td>本篇</td><td>—</td></tr><tr><td>01</td><td>函数、极限与连续</td><td>等价无穷小、泰勒求极限、间断点</td><td>★★★</td></tr><tr><td>02</td><td>导数与微分</td><td>导数定义、隐函数/参数方程求导、高阶导数</td><td>★★★</td></tr><tr><td>03</td><td>微分中值定理</td><td>罗尔/拉格朗日/柯西、<strong>证明题构造辅助函数</strong></td><td>★★★</td></tr><tr><td>04</td><td>导数的应用</td><td>洛必达、泰勒公式、极值、凹凸性、渐近线、不等式</td><td>★★★</td></tr><tr><td>05</td><td>不定积分</td><td>换元、分部、有理函数积分</td><td>★★</td></tr><tr><td>06</td><td>定积分与反常积分</td><td>变限积分求导、对称性、反常积分敛散性</td><td>★★★</td></tr><tr><td>07</td><td>定积分的应用</td><td>面积、旋转体体积、弧长、物理应用</td><td>★★</td></tr><tr><td>08</td><td>常微分方程</td><td>一阶方程、二阶常系数线性、欧拉方程</td><td>★★★</td></tr><tr><td>09</td><td>向量代数与空间解析几何</td><td>平面与直线、曲面方程</td><td>★</td></tr><tr><td>10</td><td>多元函数微分学</td><td>可微性、复合求导、方向导数、条件极值</td><td>★★★</td></tr><tr><td>11</td><td>重积分</td><td>二重/三重积分换坐标、对称性、交换次序</td><td>★★★</td></tr><tr><td>12</td><td>曲线积分与格林公式</td><td>两类曲线积分、格林公式、与路径无关</td><td>★★★</td></tr><tr><td>13</td><td>曲面积分与高斯、斯托克斯公式</td><td>两类曲面积分、高斯公式补面法</td><td>★★★</td></tr><tr><td>14</td><td>常数项级数</td><td>正项级数判别法、交错级数、绝对/条件收敛</td><td>★★</td></tr><tr><td>15</td><td>幂级数与傅里叶级数</td><td>收敛域、和函数、函数展开、傅里叶系数</td><td>★★★</td></tr><tr><td>附录</td><td>公式速查表</td><td>全系列必背公式汇总</td><td>—</td></tr></tbody></table><div><div><div></div><div>数一独有的重点</div></div><div><p>第 09、12、13 篇（空间解析几何、曲线曲面积分）和傅里叶级数只有数一考。数二、数三的同学可以跳过这些内容。</p></div></div></section>
<section><h2>四、每篇文章的结构<a href="#四每篇文章的结构"><span>#</span></a></h2><p>后面每一篇都按同一个顺序写，方便查找：</p><ol>
<li><strong>本章地图</strong>：这一章学什么、考什么</li>
<li><strong>核心概念</strong>：只讲最关键的定义，用大白话解释</li>
<li><strong>必背公式</strong>：集中列出</li>
<li><strong>题型与套路</strong>：每个题型按“识别特征 → 解法步骤 → 例题”来讲</li>
<li><strong>证明思路</strong>：重要定理给出简短的证明思路，帮你理解它为什么成立，也能应对证明题</li>
<li><strong>易错点</strong>：常见失分点</li>
<li><strong>小练习</strong>：3～5 题，答案折叠</li>
<li><strong>本章小结</strong></li>
</ol><p>文中的提醒框含义固定：</p><div><div><div></div><div>技巧</div></div><div><p>能明显省时间的做法。</p></div></div><div><div><div></div><div>易错</div></div><div><p>很容易丢分的地方。</p></div></div><div><div><div></div><div>必背</div></div><div><p>考前一定要背熟的结论。</p></div></div></section>
<section><h2>五、格式示例<a href="#五格式示例"><span>#</span></a></h2><p>下面用一道小题演示后面文章的写法。</p><p><strong>例</strong> 求 <span><span>lim⁡x→0tan⁡x−sin⁡xx3\displaystyle\lim_{x\to 0}\frac{\tan x-\sin x}{x^3}</span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span>x</span><span>→</span><span>0</span></span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span>lim</span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span><span><span></span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span>x</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>3</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span><span></span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span>tan</span><span></span><span>x</span><span></span><span>−</span><span></span><span>sin</span><span></span><span>x</span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span></span></span></span></span>。</p><p><strong>识别特征</strong>：<span><span>00\frac{0}{0}</span><span><span><span></span><span><span></span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span>0</span></span></span></span><span><span></span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span><span>0</span></span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span></span></span></span></span> 型，分子是两个函数相减。直接把 <span><span>tan⁡x\tan x</span><span><span><span></span><span>tan</span><span></span><span>x</span></span></span></span>、<span><span>sin⁡x\sin x</span><span><span><span></span><span>sin</span><span></span><span>x</span></span></span></span> 都换成 <span><span>xx</span><span><span><span></span><span>x</span></span></span></span> 会得到 <span><span>00</span><span><span><span></span><span>0</span></span></span></span>，这是错的。</p><p><strong>解法</strong>：先提公因式，再对乘积因子做等价替换：</p><span><span><span>tan⁡x−sin⁡xx3=tan⁡x (1−cos⁡x)x3∼x⋅12x2x3=12.\frac{\tan x-\sin x}{x^3}=\frac{\tan x\,(1-\cos x)}{x^3}\sim\frac{x\cdot\frac{1}{2}x^2}{x^3}=\frac{1}{2}.</span><span><span><span></span><span><span></span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span>x</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>3</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span><span></span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span>tan</span><span></span><span>x</span><span></span><span>−</span><span></span><span>sin</span><span></span><span>x</span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span></span><span></span><span>=</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span></span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span>x</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>3</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span><span></span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span>tan</span><span></span><span>x</span><span></span><span>(</span><span>1</span><span></span><span>−</span><span></span><span>cos</span><span></span><span>x</span><span>)</span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span></span><span></span><span>∼</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span></span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span>x</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>3</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span><span></span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span>x</span><span></span><span>⋅</span><span></span><span><span></span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span>2</span></span></span></span><span><span></span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span><span>1</span></span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span></span><span><span>x</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>2</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span></span><span></span><span>=</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span></span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>2</span></span></span><span><span></span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span>1</span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span></span><span>.</span></span></span></span></span><div><div><div></div><div>易错</div></div><div><p>等价无穷小只能替换<strong>乘除中的因子</strong>，不能直接替换加减中的某一项。</p></div></div><p><strong>证明思路</strong>：为什么加减不能随便替换？因为 <span><span>tan⁡x=x+x33+o(x3)\tan x=x+\frac{x^3}{3}+o(x^3)</span><span><span><span></span><span>tan</span><span></span><span>x</span><span></span><span>=</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>x</span><span></span><span>+</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span></span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span>3</span></span></span></span><span><span></span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span><span><span>x</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>3</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span></span><span></span><span>+</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>o</span><span>(</span><span><span>x</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>3</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span>)</span></span></span></span>，<span><span>sin⁡x=x−x36+o(x3)\sin x=x-\frac{x^3}{6}+o(x^3)</span><span><span><span></span><span>sin</span><span></span><span>x</span><span></span><span>=</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>x</span><span></span><span>−</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span></span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span>6</span></span></span></span><span><span></span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span><span><span>x</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>3</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span></span><span></span><span>+</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>o</span><span>(</span><span><span>x</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>3</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span>)</span></span></span></span>。两者的一阶项 <span><span>xx</span><span><span><span></span><span>x</span></span></span></span> 相减后抵消了，真正决定结果的是三阶项。只换成 <span><span>xx</span><span><span><span></span><span>x</span></span></span></span> 就把三阶项丢掉了。</p>
📝 小练习：用泰勒展开验证上面的结果（点击查看答案）
<p>由上面的展开式，$\tan x-\sin x=\left(\frac{1}{3}+\frac{1}{6}\right)x^3+o(x^3)=\frac{1}{2}x^3+o(x^3)$，所以极限为 $\frac{1}{2}$，与等价替换的结果一致。</p>
</section>
<section><h2>六、复习路线建议<a href="#六复习路线建议"><span>#</span></a></h2><p>距离初试大约 <strong>11 周</strong>。下面是一个速成节奏，可以按自己的情况调整：</p>

<table><thead><tr><th>时间</th><th>任务</th></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td>第 1～4 周</td><td>01～08 篇（一元微积分），每天 1 篇，并配套做题</td></tr><tr><td>第 5～7 周</td><td>09～15 篇（多元与级数）</td></tr><tr><td>第 8～10 周</td><td>整套真题限时训练，错题回到对应篇章查漏</td></tr><tr><td>第 11 周</td><td>只看附录速查表、错题和易错点</td></tr></tbody></table><div><div><div></div><div>怎么用这套笔记</div></div><div><ul>
<li><strong>第一遍</strong>：按顺序读，每篇的小练习都要动笔做。</li>
<li><strong>第二遍</strong>：只看“题型与套路”和“易错点”。</li>
<li><strong>考前</strong>：只看附录速查表。</li>
</ul></div></div></section>
<section><h2>本篇小结<a href="#本篇小结"><span>#</span></a></h2><ul>
<li>数一高数约占 90 分，是数学的主战场。</li>
<li>极限、导数、积分是基础，01～06 篇一定要打牢。</li>
<li>每篇都按“地图 → 概念 → 公式 → 套路 → 证明思路 → 易错 → 练习 → 小结”的结构来写。</li>
</ul><p>下一篇：<strong>01 函数、极限与连续</strong>。</p></section>]]></content>
    </entry>
    <entry>
      <id>https://gsxbxsg.github.io/posts/gaoshu-01-limit/</id>
      <title type="text">高数速成复习 01：函数、极限与连续</title>
      <published>2026-10-03T00:00:00.000Z</published>
      <updated>2026-10-03T00:00:00.000Z</updated>
      <author><name>ELEC</name></author>
      <link rel="alternate" href="https://gsxbxsg.github.io/posts/gaoshu-01-limit/"/>
      <summary type="text">求极限是整个高数的地基。本篇讲清七种未定式的处理套路、必背的等价无穷小与泰勒展开、数列极限、无穷小比较和间断点分类。</summary>
      <content type="html"><![CDATA[<p>求极限几乎是每年必考的内容，而且后面的导数、积分、级数全都建立在极限之上。这一章的目标是：<strong>拿到任何一个极限，都知道第一步该做什么</strong>。</p>
<section><h2>一、本章地图<a href="#一本章地图"><span>#</span></a></h2>

<table><thead><tr><th>模块</th><th>要掌握什么</th><th>常见考法</th></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td>函数</td><td>有界、单调、奇偶、周期；复合与反函数</td><td>选择题判断性质</td></tr><tr><td>极限概念</td><td>定义、左右极限、唯一性、保号性</td><td>选择题判断真假</td></tr><tr><td>求极限</td><td>七种未定式、等价无穷小、泰勒、洛必达</td><td>选择、填空、解答第一题</td></tr><tr><td>数列极限</td><td>单调有界、夹逼、定积分定义</td><td>解答题</td></tr><tr><td>无穷小比较</td><td>阶的比较、反求参数</td><td>选择、填空</td></tr><tr><td>连续与间断</td><td>间断点分类、闭区间连续函数性质</td><td>选择、证明题</td></tr></tbody></table><p>求极限的总流程：</p><div><div><div><div><span></span></div><div><span></span></div><div><span></span></div><div><span></span></div><div><span></span></div><div><span></span></div><div><span></span></div><div><span></span></div><div><span></span></div><div><span></span></div><div><span></span></div><div><span></span></div><div><span></span></div><div><span><p>拿到极限</p></span></div><div><span><p>先代入，判断类型</p></span></div><div><span><p>0/0 或 ∞/∞</p></span></div><div><span><p>∞−∞</p></span></div><div><span><p>0·∞</p></span></div><div><span><p>1^∞</p></span></div><div><span><p>0^0 或 ∞^0</p></span></div><div><span><p>化简 → 等价替换 → 泰勒 → 洛必达</p></span></div><div><span><p>通分 / 有理化 / 倒代换</p></span></div><div><span><p>把一个因子放到分母</p></span></div><div><span><p>套公式 e^lim v·(u−1)</p></span></div><div><span><p>取对数 e^lim v·ln u</p></span></div>
</div><div><div><span></span></div><div><span></span></div><div><span></span></div><div><span></span></div><div><span></span></div><div><span></span></div><div><span></span></div><div><span></span></div><div><span></span></div><div><span></span></div><div><span></span></div><div><span></span></div><div><span></span></div><div><span><p>拿到极限</p></span></div><div><span><p>先代入，判断类型</p></span></div><div><span><p>0/0 或 ∞/∞</p></span></div><div><span><p>∞−∞</p></span></div><div><span><p>0·∞</p></span></div><div><span><p>1^∞</p></span></div><div><span><p>0^0 或 ∞^0</p></span></div><div><span><p>化简 → 等价替换 → 泰勒 → 洛必达</p></span></div><div><span><p>通分 / 有理化 / 倒代换</p></span></div><div><span><p>把一个因子放到分母</p></span></div><div><span><p>套公式 e^lim v·(u−1)</p></span></div><div><span><p>取对数 e^lim v·ln u</p></span></div>
</div></div></div></section>
<section><h2>二、核心概念<a href="#二核心概念"><span>#</span></a></h2><section><h3>1. 函数的四个性质<a href="#1-函数的四个性质"><span>#</span></a></h3><ul>
<li><strong>有界性</strong>：存在 <span><span>M&gt;0M&gt;0</span><span><span><span></span><span>M</span><span></span><span>&gt;</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>0</span></span></span></span>，使 <span><span>∣f(x)∣≤M|f(x)|\le M</span><span><span><span></span><span>∣</span><span>f</span><span>(</span><span>x</span><span>)</span><span>∣</span><span></span><span>≤</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>M</span></span></span></span>。注意：有界与否要说明“在哪个区间上”。</li>
<li><strong>单调性</strong>：在区间上 <span><span>x1&lt;x2⇒f(x1)&lt;f(x2)x_1&lt;x_2\Rightarrow f(x_1)&lt;f(x_2)</span><span><span><span></span><span><span>x</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>1</span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span><span>&lt;</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span>x</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>2</span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span><span>⇒</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>f</span><span>(</span><span><span>x</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>1</span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span>)</span><span></span><span>&lt;</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>f</span><span>(</span><span><span>x</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>2</span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span>)</span></span></span></span>（单调增）。</li>
<li><strong>奇偶性</strong>：定义域关于原点对称，<span><span>f(−x)=−f(x)f(-x)=-f(x)</span><span><span><span></span><span>f</span><span>(</span><span>−</span><span>x</span><span>)</span><span></span><span>=</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>−</span><span>f</span><span>(</span><span>x</span><span>)</span></span></span></span> 为奇，<span><span>f(−x)=f(x)f(-x)=f(x)</span><span><span><span></span><span>f</span><span>(</span><span>−</span><span>x</span><span>)</span><span></span><span>=</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>f</span><span>(</span><span>x</span><span>)</span></span></span></span> 为偶。</li>
<li><strong>周期性</strong>：<span><span>f(x+T)=f(x)f(x+T)=f(x)</span><span><span><span></span><span>f</span><span>(</span><span>x</span><span></span><span>+</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>T</span><span>)</span><span></span><span>=</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>f</span><span>(</span><span>x</span><span>)</span></span></span></span>。</li>
</ul><div><div><div></div><div>奇偶性常用结论</div></div><div><p>奇 × 奇 = 偶，奇 × 偶 = 奇；可导的奇函数，导数是偶函数；可导的偶函数，导数是奇函数。<span><span>ln⁡(x+1+x2)\ln\left(x+\sqrt{1+x^2}\right)</span><span><span><span></span><span>ln</span><span></span><span><span><span>(</span></span><span>x</span><span></span><span>+</span><span></span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>1</span><span></span><span>+</span><span></span><span><span>x</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>2</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span><span></span><span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span><span><span>)</span></span></span></span></span></span> 是奇函数，这个常在对称区间积分里出现。</p></div></div></section><section><h3>2. 极限的定义（读懂即可）<a href="#2-极限的定义读懂即可"><span>#</span></a></h3><ul>
<li>数列：<span><span>lim⁡n→∞xn=A\lim\limits_{n\to\infty}x_n=A</span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span>n</span><span>→</span><span>∞</span></span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span>lim</span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span><span><span>x</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>n</span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span><span>=</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>A</span></span></span></span> 指对任意 <span><span>ε&gt;0\varepsilon&gt;0</span><span><span><span></span><span>ε</span><span></span><span>&gt;</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>0</span></span></span></span>，存在 <span><span>NN</span><span><span><span></span><span>N</span></span></span></span>，当 <span><span>n&gt;Nn&gt;N</span><span><span><span></span><span>n</span><span></span><span>&gt;</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>N</span></span></span></span> 时 <span><span>∣xn−A∣&lt;ε|x_n-A|&lt;\varepsilon</span><span><span><span></span><span>∣</span><span><span>x</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>n</span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span><span>−</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>A</span><span>∣</span><span></span><span>&lt;</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>ε</span></span></span></span>。</li>
<li>函数：<span><span>lim⁡x→x0f(x)=A\lim\limits_{x\to x_0}f(x)=A</span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span>x</span><span>→</span><span><span>x</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>0</span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span>lim</span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span><span>f</span><span>(</span><span>x</span><span>)</span><span></span><span>=</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>A</span></span></span></span> 指对任意 <span><span>ε&gt;0\varepsilon&gt;0</span><span><span><span></span><span>ε</span><span></span><span>&gt;</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>0</span></span></span></span>，存在 <span><span>δ&gt;0\delta&gt;0</span><span><span><span></span><span>δ</span><span></span><span>&gt;</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>0</span></span></span></span>，当 <span><span>0&lt;∣x−x0∣&lt;δ0&lt;|x-x_0|&lt;\delta</span><span><span><span></span><span>0</span><span></span><span>&lt;</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>∣</span><span>x</span><span></span><span>−</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span>x</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>0</span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span>∣</span><span></span><span>&lt;</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>δ</span></span></span></span> 时 <span><span>∣f(x)−A∣&lt;ε|f(x)-A|&lt;\varepsilon</span><span><span><span></span><span>∣</span><span>f</span><span>(</span><span>x</span><span>)</span><span></span><span>−</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>A</span><span>∣</span><span></span><span>&lt;</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>ε</span></span></span></span>。</li>
</ul><p>大白话：<strong>只要 <span><span>xx</span><span><span><span></span><span>x</span></span></span></span> 足够靠近 <span><span>x0x_0</span><span><span><span></span><span><span>x</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>0</span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span>（但不等于 <span><span>x0x_0</span><span><span><span></span><span><span>x</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>0</span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span>），<span><span>f(x)f(x)</span><span><span><span></span><span>f</span><span>(</span><span>x</span><span>)</span></span></span></span> 就能任意靠近 <span><span>AA</span><span><span><span></span><span>A</span></span></span></span></strong>。所以极限和 <span><span>f(x0)f(x_0)</span><span><span><span></span><span>f</span><span>(</span><span><span>x</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>0</span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span>)</span></span></span></span> 本身等于多少、有没有定义都无关。</p></section><section><h3>3. 左右极限<a href="#3-左右极限"><span>#</span></a></h3><span><span><span>lim⁡x→x0f(x)=A  ⟺  lim⁡x→x0−f(x)=lim⁡x→x0+f(x)=A.\lim_{x\to x_0}f(x)=A\iff\lim_{x\to x_0^-}f(x)=\lim_{x\to x_0^+}f(x)=A.</span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span>x</span><span>→</span><span><span>x</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>0</span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span>lim</span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span><span>f</span><span>(</span><span>x</span><span>)</span><span></span><span>=</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>A</span><span></span><span></span><span>⟺</span><span></span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span>x</span><span>→</span><span><span>x</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>0</span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span>−</span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span>lim</span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span><span>f</span><span>(</span><span>x</span><span>)</span><span></span><span>=</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span>x</span><span>→</span><span><span>x</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>0</span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span>+</span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span>lim</span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span><span>f</span><span>(</span><span>x</span><span>)</span><span></span><span>=</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>A</span><span>.</span></span></span></span></span><div><div><div></div><div>必须分左右算的情况</div></div><div><ul>
<li>分段函数在分段点处</li>
<li>含 <span><span>e1/xe^{1/x}</span><span><span><span></span><span><span>e</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span>1/</span><span>x</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span>：<span><span>x→0+x\to0^+</span><span><span><span></span><span>x</span><span></span><span>→</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span>0</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>+</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span> 时趋于 <span><span>+∞+\infty</span><span><span><span></span><span>+</span><span>∞</span></span></span></span>，<span><span>x→0−x\to0^-</span><span><span><span></span><span>x</span><span></span><span>→</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span>0</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>−</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span> 时趋于 <span><span>00</span><span><span><span></span><span>0</span></span></span></span></li>
<li>含 <span><span>arctan⁡1x\arctan\frac1x</span><span><span><span></span><span>arctan</span><span></span><span><span></span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span>x</span></span></span></span><span><span></span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span><span>1</span></span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span></span></span></span></span>：<span><span>x→0±x\to0^\pm</span><span><span><span></span><span>x</span><span></span><span>→</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span>0</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>±</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span> 时分别趋于 <span><span>±π2\pm\frac{\pi}{2}</span><span><span><span></span><span>±</span><span><span></span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span>2</span></span></span></span><span><span></span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span><span>π</span></span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span></span></span></span></span></li>
<li>含 <span><span>∣x∣|x|</span><span><span><span></span><span>∣</span><span>x</span><span>∣</span></span></span></span>、<span><span>[x][x]</span><span><span><span></span><span>[</span><span>x</span><span>]</span></span></span></span>（取整）、<span><span>x2=∣x∣\sqrt{x^2}=|x|</span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span>x</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>2</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span><span></span><span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span><span>=</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>∣</span><span>x</span><span>∣</span></span></span></span></li>
<li><span><span>x→∞x\to\infty</span><span><span><span></span><span>x</span><span></span><span>→</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>∞</span></span></span></span> 时含 <span><span>exe^x</span><span><span><span></span><span><span>e</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>x</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span>、<span><span>arctan⁡x\arctan x</span><span><span><span></span><span>arctan</span><span></span><span>x</span></span></span></span>，要分 <span><span>+∞+\infty</span><span><span><span></span><span>+</span><span>∞</span></span></span></span> 和 <span><span>−∞-\infty</span><span><span><span></span><span>−</span><span>∞</span></span></span></span></li>
</ul></div></div></section><section><h3>4. 极限的三个性质<a href="#4-极限的三个性质"><span>#</span></a></h3><ol>
<li><strong>唯一性</strong>：极限存在则唯一。</li>
<li><strong>局部有界性</strong>：<span><span>lim⁡x→x0f(x)\lim\limits_{x\to x_0}f(x)</span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span>x</span><span>→</span><span><span>x</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>0</span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span>lim</span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span><span>f</span><span>(</span><span>x</span><span>)</span></span></span></span> 存在，则 <span><span>ff</span><span><span><span></span><span>f</span></span></span></span> 在 <span><span>x0x_0</span><span><span><span></span><span><span>x</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>0</span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span> 的某个去心邻域内有界。</li>
<li><strong>局部保号性</strong>：若 <span><span>lim⁡x→x0f(x)=A&gt;0\lim\limits_{x\to x_0}f(x)=A&gt;0</span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span>x</span><span>→</span><span><span>x</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>0</span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span>lim</span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span><span>f</span><span>(</span><span>x</span><span>)</span><span></span><span>=</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>A</span><span></span><span>&gt;</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>0</span></span></span></span>，则在 <span><span>x0x_0</span><span><span><span></span><span><span>x</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>0</span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span> 附近 <span><span>f(x)&gt;0f(x)&gt;0</span><span><span><span></span><span>f</span><span>(</span><span>x</span><span>)</span><span></span><span>&gt;</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>0</span></span></span></span>；反过来，若在 <span><span>x0x_0</span><span><span><span></span><span><span>x</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>0</span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span> 附近 <span><span>f(x)≥0f(x)\ge0</span><span><span><span></span><span>f</span><span>(</span><span>x</span><span>)</span><span></span><span>≥</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>0</span></span></span></span> 且极限存在，则 <span><span>A≥0A\ge0</span><span><span><span></span><span>A</span><span></span><span>≥</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>0</span></span></span></span>（注意是 <span><span>≥\ge</span><span><span><span></span><span>≥</span></span></span></span>，不是 <span><span>&gt;&gt;</span><span><span><span></span><span>&gt;</span></span></span></span>）。</li>
</ol></section><section><h3>5. 无穷小与阶的比较<a href="#5-无穷小与阶的比较"><span>#</span></a></h3><p>设 <span><span>α→0\alpha\to0</span><span><span><span></span><span>α</span><span></span><span>→</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>0</span></span></span></span>，<span><span>β→0\beta\to0</span><span><span><span></span><span>β</span><span></span><span>→</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>0</span></span></span></span>，且 <span><span>β≠0\beta\ne0</span><span><span><span></span><span>β</span><span></span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span><span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span><span>=</span></span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>0</span></span></span></span>：</p>

<table><thead><tr><th><span><span>lim⁡αβ\lim\dfrac{\alpha}{\beta}</span><span><span><span></span><span>lim</span><span></span><span><span></span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>β</span></span></span><span><span></span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span>α</span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span></span></span></span></span></th><th>结论</th></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td><span><span>00</span><span><span><span></span><span>0</span></span></span></span></td><td><span><span>α\alpha</span><span><span><span></span><span>α</span></span></span></span> 是比 <span><span>β\beta</span><span><span><span></span><span>β</span></span></span></span> <strong>高阶</strong>的无穷小，记 <span><span>α=o(β)\alpha=o(\beta)</span><span><span><span></span><span>α</span><span></span><span>=</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>o</span><span>(</span><span>β</span><span>)</span></span></span></span></td></tr><tr><td><span><span>c≠0c\ne0</span><span><span><span></span><span>c</span><span></span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span><span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span><span>=</span></span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>0</span></span></span></span></td><td>同阶</td></tr><tr><td><span><span>11</span><span><span><span></span><span>1</span></span></span></span></td><td>等价，记 <span><span>α∼β\alpha\sim\beta</span><span><span><span></span><span>α</span><span></span><span>∼</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>β</span></span></span></span></td></tr><tr><td><span><span>lim⁡αβk=c≠0\lim\dfrac{\alpha}{\beta^k}=c\ne0</span><span><span><span></span><span>lim</span><span></span><span><span></span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span>β</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>k</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span><span></span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span>α</span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span></span><span></span><span>=</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>c</span><span></span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span><span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span><span>=</span></span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>0</span></span></span></span></td><td><span><span>α\alpha</span><span><span><span></span><span>α</span></span></span></span> 是 <span><span>β\beta</span><span><span><span></span><span>β</span></span></span></span> 的 <span><span>kk</span><span><span><span></span><span>k</span></span></span></span> 阶无穷小</td></tr></tbody></table><p><strong>无穷小 × 有界量 = 无穷小</strong>。例如 <span><span>lim⁡x→0xsin⁡1x=0\lim\limits_{x\to0}x\sin\frac1x=0</span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span>x</span><span>→</span><span>0</span></span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span>lim</span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span><span>x</span><span></span><span>sin</span><span></span><span><span></span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span>x</span></span></span></span><span><span></span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span><span>1</span></span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span></span><span></span><span>=</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>0</span></span></span></span>。</p></section><section><h3>6. 连续与间断<a href="#6-连续与间断"><span>#</span></a></h3><p><span><span>ff</span><span><span><span></span><span>f</span></span></span></span> 在 <span><span>x0x_0</span><span><span><span></span><span><span>x</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>0</span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span> 连续：<span><span>lim⁡x→x0f(x)=f(x0)\lim\limits_{x\to x_0}f(x)=f(x_0)</span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span>x</span><span>→</span><span><span>x</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>0</span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span>lim</span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span><span>f</span><span>(</span><span>x</span><span>)</span><span></span><span>=</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>f</span><span>(</span><span><span>x</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>0</span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span>)</span></span></span></span>。三个条件缺一不可：<strong>有定义、极限存在、两者相等</strong>。</p><p>间断点分类：</p>

<table><thead><tr><th>类型</th><th>判断方法</th></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td>第一类·可去</td><td>左右极限存在且相等，但不等于 <span><span>f(x0)f(x_0)</span><span><span><span></span><span>f</span><span>(</span><span><span>x</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>0</span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span>)</span></span></span></span>，或 <span><span>f(x0)f(x_0)</span><span><span><span></span><span>f</span><span>(</span><span><span>x</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>0</span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span>)</span></span></span></span> 无定义</td></tr><tr><td>第一类·跳跃</td><td>左右极限都存在，但不相等</td></tr><tr><td>第二类·无穷</td><td>至少一侧极限为 <span><span>∞\infty</span><span><span><span></span><span>∞</span></span></span></span></td></tr><tr><td>第二类·振荡</td><td>极限振荡不存在，如 <span><span>sin⁡1x\sin\frac1x</span><span><span><span></span><span>sin</span><span></span><span><span></span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span>x</span></span></span></span><span><span></span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span><span>1</span></span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span></span></span></span></span> 在 <span><span>x=0x=0</span><span><span><span></span><span>x</span><span></span><span>=</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>0</span></span></span></span></td></tr></tbody></table></section></section>
<section><h2>三、必背公式<a href="#三必背公式"><span>#</span></a></h2><section><h3>1. 两个重要极限<a href="#1-两个重要极限"><span>#</span></a></h3><span><span><span>lim⁡x→0sin⁡xx=1,lim⁡x→∞(1+1x)x=e(等价写法 lim⁡x→0(1+x)1x=e).\lim_{x\to0}\frac{\sin x}{x}=1,\qquad \lim_{x\to\infty}\left(1+\frac1x\right)^x=e\quad\left(\text{等价写法 }\lim_{x\to0}(1+x)^{\frac1x}=e\right).</span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span>x</span><span>→</span><span>0</span></span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span>lim</span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span><span><span></span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>x</span></span></span><span><span></span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span>sin</span><span></span><span>x</span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span></span><span></span><span>=</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>1</span><span>,</span><span></span><span></span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span>x</span><span>→</span><span>∞</span></span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span>lim</span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span><span><span><span><span>(</span></span><span>1</span><span></span><span>+</span><span></span><span><span></span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>x</span></span></span><span><span></span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span>1</span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span></span><span><span>)</span></span></span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>x</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span><span>=</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>e</span><span></span><span></span><span><span><span>(</span></span><span><span>等价写法</span><span> </span></span><span></span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span>x</span><span>→</span><span>0</span></span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span>lim</span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span><span>(</span><span>1</span><span></span><span>+</span><span></span><span>x</span><span><span>)</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span>x</span></span></span></span><span><span></span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span><span>1</span></span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span><span>=</span><span></span><span>e</span><span><span>)</span></span></span><span></span><span>.</span></span></span></span></span></section><section><h3>2. 等价无穷小（<span><span>x→0x\to0</span><span><span><span></span><span>x</span><span></span><span>→</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>0</span></span></span></span>）<a href="#2-等价无穷小x0xto0x0"><span>#</span></a></h3><div><div><div></div><div>必背·一阶</div></div><div><p><span><span>sin⁡x∼tan⁡x∼arcsin⁡x∼arctan⁡x∼ln⁡(1+x)∼ex−1∼x\sin x\sim\tan x\sim\arcsin x\sim\arctan x\sim\ln(1+x)\sim e^x-1\sim x</span><span><span><span></span><span>sin</span><span></span><span>x</span><span></span><span>∼</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>tan</span><span></span><span>x</span><span></span><span>∼</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>arcsin</span><span></span><span>x</span><span></span><span>∼</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>arctan</span><span></span><span>x</span><span></span><span>∼</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>ln</span><span>(</span><span>1</span><span></span><span>+</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>x</span><span>)</span><span></span><span>∼</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span>e</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>x</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span><span>−</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>1</span><span></span><span>∼</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>x</span></span></span></span>
<span><span>1−cos⁡x∼x22,(1+x)a−1∼ax,ax−1∼xln⁡a1-\cos x\sim\frac{x^2}{2},\qquad (1+x)^a-1\sim ax,\qquad a^x-1\sim x\ln a</span><span><span><span></span><span>1</span><span></span><span>−</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>cos</span><span></span><span>x</span><span></span><span>∼</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span></span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span>2</span></span></span></span><span><span></span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span><span><span>x</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>2</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span></span><span>,</span><span></span><span></span><span>(</span><span>1</span><span></span><span>+</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>x</span><span><span>)</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>a</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span><span>−</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>1</span><span></span><span>∼</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>a</span><span>x</span><span>,</span><span></span><span></span><span><span>a</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>x</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span><span>−</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>1</span><span></span><span>∼</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>x</span><span></span><span>ln</span><span></span><span>a</span></span></span></span></p></div></div><div><div><div></div><div>必背·差的阶（加减时用）</div></div><div><p><span><span>x−sin⁡x∼x36,tan⁡x−x∼x33,arcsin⁡x−x∼x36,x−arctan⁡x∼x33x-\sin x\sim\frac{x^3}{6},\quad \tan x-x\sim\frac{x^3}{3},\quad \arcsin x-x\sim\frac{x^3}{6},\quad x-\arctan x\sim\frac{x^3}{3}</span><span><span><span></span><span>x</span><span></span><span>−</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>sin</span><span></span><span>x</span><span></span><span>∼</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span></span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span>6</span></span></span></span><span><span></span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span><span><span>x</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>3</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span></span><span>,</span><span></span><span></span><span>tan</span><span></span><span>x</span><span></span><span>−</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>x</span><span></span><span>∼</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span></span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span>3</span></span></span></span><span><span></span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span><span><span>x</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>3</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span></span><span>,</span><span></span><span></span><span>arcsin</span><span></span><span>x</span><span></span><span>−</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>x</span><span></span><span>∼</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span></span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span>6</span></span></span></span><span><span></span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span><span><span>x</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>3</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span></span><span>,</span><span></span><span></span><span>x</span><span></span><span>−</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>arctan</span><span></span><span>x</span><span></span><span>∼</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span></span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span>3</span></span></span></span><span><span></span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span><span><span>x</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>3</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span></span></span></span></span>
<span><span>x−ln⁡(1+x)∼x22,ex−1−x∼x22,tan⁡x−sin⁡x∼x32x-\ln(1+x)\sim\frac{x^2}{2},\qquad e^x-1-x\sim\frac{x^2}{2},\qquad \tan x-\sin x\sim\frac{x^3}{2}</span><span><span><span></span><span>x</span><span></span><span>−</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>ln</span><span>(</span><span>1</span><span></span><span>+</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>x</span><span>)</span><span></span><span>∼</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span></span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span>2</span></span></span></span><span><span></span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span><span><span>x</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>2</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span></span><span>,</span><span></span><span></span><span><span>e</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>x</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span><span>−</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>1</span><span></span><span>−</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>x</span><span></span><span>∼</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span></span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span>2</span></span></span></span><span><span></span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span><span><span>x</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>2</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span></span><span>,</span><span></span><span></span><span>tan</span><span></span><span>x</span><span></span><span>−</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>sin</span><span></span><span>x</span><span></span><span>∼</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span></span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span>2</span></span></span></span><span><span></span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span><span><span>x</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>3</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span></span></span></span></span></p></div></div><p>公式里的 <span><span>xx</span><span><span><span></span><span>x</span></span></span></span> 可以换成任何趋于 <span><span>00</span><span><span><span></span><span>0</span></span></span></span> 的式子 <span><span>□\square</span><span><span><span></span><span>□</span></span></span></span>，例如 <span><span>ln⁡(1+x2)∼x2\ln(1+x^2)\sim x^2</span><span><span><span></span><span>ln</span><span>(</span><span>1</span><span></span><span>+</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span>x</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>2</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span>)</span><span></span><span>∼</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span>x</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>2</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span>，<span><span>esin⁡x−1∼sin⁡x∼xe^{\sin x}-1\sim\sin x\sim x</span><span><span><span></span><span><span>e</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span><span>s</span><span>i</span><span>n</span></span><span></span><span>x</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span><span>−</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>1</span><span></span><span>∼</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>sin</span><span></span><span>x</span><span></span><span>∼</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>x</span></span></span></span>。</p></section><section><h3>3. 常用泰勒展开（<span><span>x→0x\to0</span><span><span><span></span><span>x</span><span></span><span>→</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>0</span></span></span></span>）<a href="#3-常用泰勒展开x0xto0x0"><span>#</span></a></h3><span><span><span>ex=1+x+x22!+x33!+o(x3)sin⁡x=x−x33!+o(x4)cos⁡x=1−x22!+x44!+o(x5)ln⁡(1+x)=x−x22+x33+o(x3)(1+x)a=1+ax+a(a−1)2x2+o(x2)tan⁡x=x+x33+o(x3)arcsin⁡x=x+x36+o(x3)arctan⁡x=x−x33+o(x3)\begin{aligned}
e^x&amp;=1+x+\frac{x^2}{2!}+\frac{x^3}{3!}+o(x^3)\\
\sin x&amp;=x-\frac{x^3}{3!}+o(x^4)\\
\cos x&amp;=1-\frac{x^2}{2!}+\frac{x^4}{4!}+o(x^5)\\
\ln(1+x)&amp;=x-\frac{x^2}{2}+\frac{x^3}{3}+o(x^3)\\
(1+x)^a&amp;=1+ax+\frac{a(a-1)}{2}x^2+o(x^2)\\
\tan x&amp;=x+\frac{x^3}{3}+o(x^3)\\
\arcsin x&amp;=x+\frac{x^3}{6}+o(x^3)\\
\arctan x&amp;=x-\frac{x^3}{3}+o(x^3)
\end{aligned}</span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span>e</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>x</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span>sin</span><span></span><span>x</span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span>cos</span><span></span><span>x</span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span>ln</span><span>(</span><span>1</span><span></span><span>+</span><span></span><span>x</span><span>)</span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span>(</span><span>1</span><span></span><span>+</span><span></span><span>x</span><span><span>)</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>a</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span>tan</span><span></span><span>x</span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span>arcsin</span><span></span><span>x</span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span>arctan</span><span></span><span>x</span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span></span><span></span><span>=</span><span></span><span>1</span><span></span><span>+</span><span></span><span>x</span><span></span><span>+</span><span></span><span><span></span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>2</span><span>!</span></span></span><span><span></span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span><span>x</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>2</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span></span><span></span><span>+</span><span></span><span><span></span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>3</span><span>!</span></span></span><span><span></span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span><span>x</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>3</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span></span><span></span><span>+</span><span></span><span>o</span><span>(</span><span><span>x</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>3</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span>)</span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span></span><span></span><span>=</span><span></span><span>x</span><span></span><span>−</span><span></span><span><span></span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>3</span><span>!</span></span></span><span><span></span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span><span>x</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>3</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span></span><span></span><span>+</span><span></span><span>o</span><span>(</span><span><span>x</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>4</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span>)</span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span></span><span></span><span>=</span><span></span><span>1</span><span></span><span>−</span><span></span><span><span></span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>2</span><span>!</span></span></span><span><span></span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span><span>x</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>2</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span></span><span></span><span>+</span><span></span><span><span></span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>4</span><span>!</span></span></span><span><span></span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span><span>x</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>4</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span></span><span></span><span>+</span><span></span><span>o</span><span>(</span><span><span>x</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>5</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span>)</span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span></span><span></span><span>=</span><span></span><span>x</span><span></span><span>−</span><span></span><span><span></span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>2</span></span></span><span><span></span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span><span>x</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>2</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span></span><span></span><span>+</span><span></span><span><span></span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>3</span></span></span><span><span></span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span><span>x</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>3</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span></span><span></span><span>+</span><span></span><span>o</span><span>(</span><span><span>x</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>3</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span>)</span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span></span><span></span><span>=</span><span></span><span>1</span><span></span><span>+</span><span></span><span>a</span><span>x</span><span></span><span>+</span><span></span><span><span></span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>2</span></span></span><span><span></span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span>a</span><span>(</span><span>a</span><span></span><span>−</span><span></span><span>1</span><span>)</span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span></span><span><span>x</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>2</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span><span>+</span><span></span><span>o</span><span>(</span><span><span>x</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>2</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span>)</span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span></span><span></span><span>=</span><span></span><span>x</span><span></span><span>+</span><span></span><span><span></span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>3</span></span></span><span><span></span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span><span>x</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>3</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span></span><span></span><span>+</span><span></span><span>o</span><span>(</span><span><span>x</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>3</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span>)</span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span></span><span></span><span>=</span><span></span><span>x</span><span></span><span>+</span><span></span><span><span></span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>6</span></span></span><span><span></span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span><span>x</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>3</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span></span><span></span><span>+</span><span></span><span>o</span><span>(</span><span><span>x</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>3</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span>)</span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span></span><span></span><span>=</span><span></span><span>x</span><span></span><span>−</span><span></span><span><span></span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>3</span></span></span><span><span></span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span><span>x</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>3</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span></span><span></span><span>+</span><span></span><span>o</span><span>(</span><span><span>x</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>3</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span>)</span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><div><div><div></div><div>展开到几阶？</div></div><div><ul>
<li>分式：<strong>上下同阶</strong>。分母是 <span><span>x4x^4</span><span><span><span></span><span><span>x</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>4</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span>，分子就展开到 <span><span>x4x^4</span><span><span><span></span><span><span>x</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>4</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span>。</li>
<li>加减：展开到<strong>第一个不能抵消的项</strong>为止。</li>
</ul></div></div></section><section><h3>4. 1^∞ 型公式<a href="#4-1-型公式"><span>#</span></a></h3><p>若 <span><span>u→1u\to1</span><span><span><span></span><span>u</span><span></span><span>→</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>1</span></span></span></span>，<span><span>v→∞v\to\infty</span><span><span><span></span><span>v</span><span></span><span>→</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>∞</span></span></span></span>，则</p><span><span><span>lim⁡uv=elim⁡v (u−1).\lim u^v=e^{\lim v\,(u-1)}.</span><span><span><span></span><span>lim</span><span></span><span><span>u</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>v</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span><span>=</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span>e</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span><span>l</span><span>i</span><span>m</span></span><span></span><span>v</span><span></span><span>(</span><span>u</span><span>−</span><span>1</span><span>)</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span>.</span></span></span></span></span></section><section><h3>5. 增长速度（<span><span>x→+∞x\to+\infty</span><span><span><span></span><span>x</span><span></span><span>→</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>+</span><span>∞</span></span></span></span>）<a href="#5-增长速度xxtoinftyx"><span>#</span></a></h3><span><span><span>ln⁡ax≪xb≪cx(a,b&gt;0, c&gt;1);数列： ln⁡an≪nb≪cn≪n!≪nn.\ln^a x\ll x^b\ll c^x\quad(a,b&gt;0,\ c&gt;1);\qquad \text{数列：}\ \ln^a n\ll n^b\ll c^n\ll n!\ll n^n.</span><span><span><span></span><span><span>ln</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>a</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span><span>x</span><span></span><span>≪</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span>x</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>b</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span><span>≪</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span>c</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>x</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span><span>(</span><span>a</span><span>,</span><span></span><span>b</span><span></span><span>&gt;</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>0</span><span>,</span><span> </span><span></span><span>c</span><span></span><span>&gt;</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>1</span><span>)</span><span>;</span><span></span><span></span><span><span>数列：</span></span><span> </span><span></span><span><span>ln</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>a</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span><span>n</span><span></span><span>≪</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span>n</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>b</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span><span>≪</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span>c</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>n</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span><span>≪</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>n</span><span>!</span><span></span><span>≪</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span>n</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>n</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span>.</span></span></span></span></span></section></section>
<section><h2>四、题型与解题套路<a href="#四题型与解题套路"><span>#</span></a></h2><section><h3>题型 1：0/0 型<a href="#题型-100-型"><span>#</span></a></h3><p><strong>识别特征</strong>：代入后分子分母都是 <span><span>00</span><span><span><span></span><span>0</span></span></span></span>。</p><p><strong>解法步骤</strong>：</p><ol>
<li><strong>先化简</strong>：非零因子先算出来（如 <span><span>cos⁡x→1\cos x\to1</span><span><span><span></span><span>cos</span><span></span><span>x</span><span></span><span>→</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>1</span></span></span></span> 直接代入）；根式先有理化。</li>
<li><strong>等价替换</strong>：只替换乘除中的因子。</li>
<li><strong>泰勒展开</strong>：出现加减、等价替换失效时用。</li>
<li><strong>洛必达</strong>：上面都不好用时再用，每求一次导先化简。</li>
</ol><p><strong>例 1</strong> 求 <span><span>lim⁡x→0cos⁡x−e−x22x4\displaystyle\lim_{x\to0}\frac{\cos x-e^{-\frac{x^2}{2}}}{x^4}</span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span>x</span><span>→</span><span>0</span></span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span>lim</span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span><span><span></span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span>x</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>4</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span><span></span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span>cos</span><span></span><span>x</span><span></span><span>−</span><span></span><span><span>e</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span>−</span><span><span></span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span>2</span></span></span></span><span><span></span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span><span><span>x</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span>2</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span></span></span></span></span>。</p><p><strong>解</strong> 分母是 <span><span>x4x^4</span><span><span><span></span><span><span>x</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>4</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span>，分子展开到 <span><span>x4x^4</span><span><span><span></span><span><span>x</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>4</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span>：</p><span><span><span>cos⁡x=1−x22+x424+o(x4),e−x22=1−x22+12⋅x44+o(x4)=1−x22+x48+o(x4).\cos x=1-\frac{x^2}{2}+\frac{x^4}{24}+o(x^4),\qquad e^{-\frac{x^2}{2}}=1-\frac{x^2}{2}+\frac12\cdot\frac{x^4}{4}+o(x^4)=1-\frac{x^2}{2}+\frac{x^4}{8}+o(x^4).</span><span><span><span></span><span>cos</span><span></span><span>x</span><span></span><span>=</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>1</span><span></span><span>−</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span></span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>2</span></span></span><span><span></span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span><span>x</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>2</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span></span><span></span><span>+</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span></span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>24</span></span></span><span><span></span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span><span>x</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>4</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span></span><span></span><span>+</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>o</span><span>(</span><span><span>x</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>4</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span>)</span><span>,</span><span></span><span></span><span><span>e</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span>−</span><span><span></span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span>2</span></span></span></span><span><span></span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span><span><span>x</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span>2</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span><span>=</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>1</span><span></span><span>−</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span></span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>2</span></span></span><span><span></span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span><span>x</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>2</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span></span><span></span><span>+</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span></span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>2</span></span></span><span><span></span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span>1</span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span></span><span></span><span>⋅</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span></span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>4</span></span></span><span><span></span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span><span>x</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>4</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span></span><span></span><span>+</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>o</span><span>(</span><span><span>x</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>4</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span>)</span><span></span><span>=</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>1</span><span></span><span>−</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span></span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>2</span></span></span><span><span></span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span><span>x</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>2</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span></span><span></span><span>+</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span></span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>8</span></span></span><span><span></span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span><span>x</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>4</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span></span><span></span><span>+</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>o</span><span>(</span><span><span>x</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>4</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span>)</span><span>.</span></span></span></span></span><p>相减：<span><span>cos⁡x−e−x22=(124−324)x4+o(x4)=−x412+o(x4)\cos x-e^{-\frac{x^2}{2}}=\left(\frac1{24}-\frac{3}{24}\right)x^4+o(x^4)=-\frac{x^4}{12}+o(x^4)</span><span><span><span></span><span>cos</span><span></span><span>x</span><span></span><span>−</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span>e</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span>−</span><span><span></span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span>2</span></span></span></span><span><span></span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span><span><span>x</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span>2</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span><span>=</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span><span>(</span></span><span><span></span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span>24</span></span></span></span><span><span></span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span><span>1</span></span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span></span><span></span><span>−</span><span></span><span><span></span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span>24</span></span></span></span><span><span></span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span><span>3</span></span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span></span><span><span>)</span></span></span><span></span><span><span>x</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>4</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span><span>+</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>o</span><span>(</span><span><span>x</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>4</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span>)</span><span></span><span>=</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>−</span><span><span></span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span>12</span></span></span></span><span><span></span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span><span><span>x</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>4</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span></span><span></span><span>+</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>o</span><span>(</span><span><span>x</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>4</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span>)</span></span></span></span>，所以极限为 <span><span>−112\boxed{-\dfrac{1}{12}}</span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span><span>−</span><span><span></span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>12</span></span></span><span><span></span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span>1</span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span><span></span><span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span>。</p><div><div><div></div><div>易错</div></div><div><p>这题如果把 <span><span>cos⁡x\cos x</span><span><span><span></span><span>cos</span><span></span><span>x</span></span></span></span> 和 <span><span>e−x2/2e^{-x^2/2}</span><span><span><span></span><span><span>e</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span>−</span><span><span>x</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>2</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span>/2</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span> 都替换成 <span><span>1−x221-\frac{x^2}{2}</span><span><span><span></span><span>1</span><span></span><span>−</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span></span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span>2</span></span></span></span><span><span></span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span><span><span>x</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>2</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span></span></span></span></span>，分子会变成 <span><span>00</span><span><span><span></span><span>0</span></span></span></span>，这是错误的。加减中替换，必须保留到不能抵消的那一项。</p></div></div></section><section><h3>题型 2：∞−∞ 型<a href="#题型-2-型"><span>#</span></a></h3><p><strong>识别特征</strong>：两个都趋于 <span><span>∞\infty</span><span><span><span></span><span>∞</span></span></span></span> 的式子相减。</p><p><strong>解法</strong>：</p><ul>
<li>分式相减 → <strong>通分</strong>，化成 0/0。</li>
<li>根式相减 → <strong>有理化</strong>。</li>
<li><span><span>x→∞x\to\infty</span><span><span><span></span><span>x</span><span></span><span>→</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>∞</span></span></span></span> 且不好通分 → <strong>倒代换</strong> <span><span>t=1xt=\frac1x</span><span><span><span></span><span>t</span><span></span><span>=</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span></span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span>x</span></span></span></span><span><span></span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span><span>1</span></span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span></span></span></span></span>。</li>
</ul><p><strong>例 2</strong> 求 <span><span>lim⁡x→0(1x2−1xtan⁡x)\displaystyle\lim_{x\to0}\left(\frac1{x^2}-\frac1{x\tan x}\right)</span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span>x</span><span>→</span><span>0</span></span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span>lim</span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span><span><span><span>(</span></span><span><span></span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span>x</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>2</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span><span></span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span>1</span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span></span><span></span><span>−</span><span></span><span><span></span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>x</span><span></span><span>tan</span><span></span><span>x</span></span></span><span><span></span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span>1</span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span></span><span><span>)</span></span></span></span></span></span>。</p><p><strong>解</strong> 通分：</p><span><span><span>1x2−1xtan⁡x=tan⁡x−xx2tan⁡x∼x33x3→13.\frac1{x^2}-\frac1{x\tan x}=\frac{\tan x-x}{x^2\tan x}\sim\frac{\frac{x^3}{3}}{x^3}\to\boxed{\frac13}.</span><span><span><span></span><span><span></span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span>x</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>2</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span><span></span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span>1</span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span></span><span></span><span>−</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span></span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>x</span><span></span><span>tan</span><span></span><span>x</span></span></span><span><span></span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span>1</span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span></span><span></span><span>=</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span></span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span>x</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>2</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span><span>tan</span><span></span><span>x</span></span></span><span><span></span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span>tan</span><span></span><span>x</span><span></span><span>−</span><span></span><span>x</span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span></span><span></span><span>∼</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span></span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span>x</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>3</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span><span></span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span>3</span></span></span></span><span><span></span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span><span><span>x</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>3</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span></span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span></span><span></span><span>→</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>3</span></span></span><span><span></span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span>1</span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span><span></span><span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span><span>.</span></span></span></span></span><p>分母中 <span><span>tan⁡x\tan x</span><span><span><span></span><span>tan</span><span></span><span>x</span></span></span></span> 是乘积因子，可以换成 <span><span>xx</span><span><span><span></span><span>x</span></span></span></span>；分子是差，用必背的 <span><span>tan⁡x−x∼x33\tan x-x\sim\frac{x^3}{3}</span><span><span><span></span><span>tan</span><span></span><span>x</span><span></span><span>−</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>x</span><span></span><span>∼</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span></span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span>3</span></span></span></span><span><span></span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span><span><span>x</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>3</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span></span></span></span></span>。</p><p><strong>例 3</strong> 求 <span><span>lim⁡x→+∞[x−x2ln⁡(1+1x)]\displaystyle\lim_{x\to+\infty}\left[x-x^2\ln\left(1+\frac1x\right)\right]</span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span>x</span><span>→</span><span>+</span><span>∞</span></span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span>lim</span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span><span><span><span>[</span></span><span>x</span><span></span><span>−</span><span></span><span><span>x</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>2</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span><span>ln</span><span></span><span><span><span>(</span></span><span>1</span><span></span><span>+</span><span></span><span><span></span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>x</span></span></span><span><span></span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span>1</span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span></span><span><span>)</span></span></span><span><span>]</span></span></span></span></span></span>。</p><p><strong>解</strong> 令 <span><span>t=1x→0+t=\frac1x\to0^+</span><span><span><span></span><span>t</span><span></span><span>=</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span></span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span>x</span></span></span></span><span><span></span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span><span>1</span></span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span></span><span></span><span>→</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span>0</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>+</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span>：</p><span><span><span>原式=lim⁡t→0+[1t−ln⁡(1+t)t2]=lim⁡t→0+t−ln⁡(1+t)t2=12.\text{原式}=\lim_{t\to0^+}\left[\frac1t-\frac{\ln(1+t)}{t^2}\right]=\lim_{t\to0^+}\frac{t-\ln(1+t)}{t^2}=\boxed{\frac12}.</span><span><span><span></span><span><span>原式</span></span><span></span><span>=</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span>t</span><span>→</span><span><span>0</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>+</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span>lim</span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span><span><span><span>[</span></span><span><span></span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>t</span></span></span><span><span></span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span>1</span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span></span><span></span><span>−</span><span></span><span><span></span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span>t</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>2</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span><span></span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span>ln</span><span>(</span><span>1</span><span></span><span>+</span><span></span><span>t</span><span>)</span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span></span><span><span>]</span></span></span><span></span><span>=</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span>t</span><span>→</span><span><span>0</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>+</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span>lim</span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span><span><span></span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span>t</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>2</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span><span></span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span>t</span><span></span><span>−</span><span></span><span>ln</span><span>(</span><span>1</span><span></span><span>+</span><span></span><span>t</span><span>)</span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span></span><span></span><span>=</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>2</span></span></span><span><span></span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span>1</span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span><span></span><span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span><span>.</span></span></span></span></span><p><strong>例 4</strong> 求 <span><span>lim⁡x→+∞(x2+x−x)\displaystyle\lim_{x\to+\infty}\left(\sqrt{x^2+x}-x\right)</span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span>x</span><span>→</span><span>+</span><span>∞</span></span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span>lim</span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span><span><span><span>(</span></span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span>x</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>2</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span><span>+</span><span></span><span>x</span></span></span><span><span></span><span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span><span>−</span><span></span><span>x</span><span><span>)</span></span></span></span></span></span>。</p><p><strong>解</strong> 有理化：<span><span>xx2+x+x=11+1x+1→12\displaystyle\frac{x}{\sqrt{x^2+x}+x}=\frac{1}{\sqrt{1+\frac1x}+1}\to\boxed{\frac12}</span><span><span><span></span><span><span></span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span>x</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>2</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span><span>+</span><span></span><span>x</span></span></span><span><span></span><span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span><span>+</span><span></span><span>x</span></span></span><span><span></span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span>x</span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span></span><span></span><span>=</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span></span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>1</span><span></span><span>+</span><span></span><span><span></span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span>x</span></span></span></span><span><span></span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span><span>1</span></span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span></span></span></span><span><span></span><span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span><span>+</span><span></span><span>1</span></span></span><span><span></span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span>1</span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span></span><span></span><span>→</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>2</span></span></span><span><span></span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span>1</span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span><span></span><span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span>。</p></section><section><h3>题型 3：0·∞ 型<a href="#题型-30-型"><span>#</span></a></h3><p><strong>解法</strong>：把其中一个因子“翻”到分母，变成 0/0 或 ∞/∞。一般把<strong>对数、反三角函数留在分子</strong>，因为它们求导后更简单。</p><p>例如 <span><span>lim⁡x→0+xln⁡x=lim⁡x→0+ln⁡x1x=洛lim⁡x→0+1x−1x2=lim⁡x→0+(−x)=0\displaystyle\lim_{x\to0^+}x\ln x=\lim_{x\to0^+}\frac{\ln x}{\frac1x}\overset{\text{洛}}{=}\lim_{x\to0^+}\frac{\frac1x}{-\frac1{x^2}}=\lim_{x\to0^+}(-x)=0</span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span>x</span><span>→</span><span><span>0</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>+</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span>lim</span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span><span>x</span><span></span><span>ln</span><span></span><span>x</span><span></span><span>=</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span>x</span><span>→</span><span><span>0</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>+</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span>lim</span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span><span><span></span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span>x</span></span></span></span><span><span></span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span><span>1</span></span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span></span></span></span><span><span></span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span>ln</span><span></span><span>x</span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span></span><span></span><span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>=</span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span><span><span>洛</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span>x</span><span>→</span><span><span>0</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>+</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span>lim</span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span><span><span></span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>−</span><span><span></span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span><span>x</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>2</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span><span></span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span><span>1</span></span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span></span></span></span><span><span></span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span>x</span></span></span></span><span><span></span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span><span>1</span></span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span></span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span></span><span></span><span>=</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span>x</span><span>→</span><span><span>0</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>+</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span>lim</span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span><span>(</span><span>−</span><span>x</span><span>)</span><span></span><span>=</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>0</span></span></span></span>。</p><div><div><div></div><div>必背</div></div><div><p><span><span>lim⁡x→0+xaln⁡x=0 (a&gt;0)\lim\limits_{x\to0^+}x^a\ln x=0\ (a&gt;0)</span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span>x</span><span>→</span><span><span>0</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>+</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span>lim</span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span><span><span>x</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>a</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span><span>ln</span><span></span><span>x</span><span></span><span>=</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>0</span><span> </span><span>(</span><span>a</span><span></span><span>&gt;</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>0</span><span>)</span></span></span></span>，后面会反复用到。</p></div></div></section><section><h3>题型 4：1^∞ 型<a href="#题型-41-型"><span>#</span></a></h3><p><strong>识别特征</strong>：底数趋于 <span><span>11</span><span><span><span></span><span>1</span></span></span></span>，指数趋于 <span><span>∞\infty</span><span><span><span></span><span>∞</span></span></span></span>。</p><p><strong>解法</strong>：直接套公式 <span><span>lim⁡uv=elim⁡v(u−1)\lim u^v=e^{\lim v(u-1)}</span><span><span><span></span><span>lim</span><span></span><span><span>u</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>v</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span><span>=</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span>e</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span><span>l</span><span>i</span><span>m</span></span><span></span><span>v</span><span>(</span><span>u</span><span>−</span><span>1</span><span>)</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span>。</p><p><strong>例 5</strong> 求 <span><span>lim⁡x→0(cos⁡x)1x2\displaystyle\lim_{x\to0}(\cos x)^{\frac1{x^2}}</span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span>x</span><span>→</span><span>0</span></span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span>lim</span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span><span>(</span><span>cos</span><span></span><span>x</span><span><span>)</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span><span>x</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span>2</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span><span></span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span><span>1</span></span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span>。</p><p><strong>解</strong> <span><span>v(u−1)=cos⁡x−1x2→−12v(u-1)=\dfrac{\cos x-1}{x^2}\to-\dfrac12</span><span><span><span></span><span>v</span><span>(</span><span>u</span><span></span><span>−</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>1</span><span>)</span><span></span><span>=</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span></span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span>x</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>2</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span><span></span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span>cos</span><span></span><span>x</span><span></span><span>−</span><span></span><span>1</span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span></span><span></span><span>→</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>−</span><span><span></span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>2</span></span></span><span><span></span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span>1</span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span></span></span></span></span>，所以原式 <span><span>=e−12=\boxed{e^{-\frac12}}</span><span><span><span></span><span>=</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span><span><span>e</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span>−</span><span><span></span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span>2</span></span></span></span><span><span></span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span><span>1</span></span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span><span></span><span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span>。</p><p><strong>例 6</strong> 求 <span><span>lim⁡x→∞(x+1x−1)x\displaystyle\lim_{x\to\infty}\left(\frac{x+1}{x-1}\right)^x</span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span>x</span><span>→</span><span>∞</span></span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span>lim</span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span><span><span><span><span>(</span></span><span><span></span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>x</span><span></span><span>−</span><span></span><span>1</span></span></span><span><span></span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span>x</span><span></span><span>+</span><span></span><span>1</span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span></span><span><span>)</span></span></span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>x</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span>。</p><p><strong>解</strong> <span><span>u−1=2x−1u-1=\dfrac{2}{x-1}</span><span><span><span></span><span>u</span><span></span><span>−</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>1</span><span></span><span>=</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span></span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>x</span><span></span><span>−</span><span></span><span>1</span></span></span><span><span></span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span>2</span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span></span></span></span></span>，<span><span>v(u−1)=2xx−1→2v(u-1)=\dfrac{2x}{x-1}\to2</span><span><span><span></span><span>v</span><span>(</span><span>u</span><span></span><span>−</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>1</span><span>)</span><span></span><span>=</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span></span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>x</span><span></span><span>−</span><span></span><span>1</span></span></span><span><span></span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span>2</span><span>x</span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span></span><span></span><span>→</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>2</span></span></span></span>，所以原式 <span><span>=e2=\boxed{e^2}</span><span><span><span></span><span>=</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span><span><span>e</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>2</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span><span></span><span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span>。</p></section><section><h3>题型 5：0^0 与 ∞^0 型<a href="#题型-500-与-0-型"><span>#</span></a></h3><p><strong>解法</strong>：取对数，<span><span>uv=evln⁡uu^v=e^{v\ln u}</span><span><span><span></span><span><span>u</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>v</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span><span>=</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span>e</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span>v</span><span></span><span><span>l</span><span>n</span></span><span></span><span>u</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span>，指数部分变成 0·∞。</p><p><strong>例 7</strong> 求 <span><span>lim⁡x→0+xsin⁡x\displaystyle\lim_{x\to0^+}x^{\sin x}</span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span>x</span><span>→</span><span><span>0</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>+</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span>lim</span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span><span><span>x</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span><span>s</span><span>i</span><span>n</span></span><span></span><span>x</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span>。</p><p><strong>解</strong> <span><span>sin⁡xln⁡x∼xln⁡x→0\sin x\ln x\sim x\ln x\to0</span><span><span><span></span><span>sin</span><span></span><span>x</span><span></span><span>ln</span><span></span><span>x</span><span></span><span>∼</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>x</span><span></span><span>ln</span><span></span><span>x</span><span></span><span>→</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>0</span></span></span></span>，所以原式 <span><span>=e0=1=e^0=\boxed{1}</span><span><span><span></span><span>=</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span>e</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>0</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span><span>=</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span><span>1</span></span></span></span></span><span><span></span><span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span>。</p></section><section><h3>题型 6：数列极限<a href="#题型-6数列极限"><span>#</span></a></h3><p>三种主要方法：</p>

<table><thead><tr><th>方法</th><th>识别特征</th></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td>单调有界准则</td><td>递推数列 <span><span>xn+1=f(xn)x_{n+1}=f(x_n)</span><span><span><span></span><span><span>x</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span>n</span><span>+</span><span>1</span></span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span><span>=</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>f</span><span>(</span><span><span>x</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>n</span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span>)</span></span></span></span></td></tr><tr><td>夹逼准则</td><td><span><span>nn</span><span><span><span></span><span>n</span></span></span></span> 项求和，每项分母“差一点点”一样</td></tr><tr><td>定积分定义</td><td><span><span>nn</span><span><span><span></span><span>n</span></span></span></span> 项求和，可以写成 <span><span>1n∑f(kn)\frac1n\sum f\left(\frac kn\right)</span><span><span><span></span><span><span></span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span>n</span></span></span></span><span><span></span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span><span>1</span></span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span></span><span></span><span>∑</span><span></span><span>f</span><span></span><span><span><span>(</span></span><span><span></span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span>n</span></span></span></span><span><span></span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span><span>k</span></span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span></span><span><span>)</span></span></span></span></span></span>，详见第 06 篇</td></tr></tbody></table><p>另外，数列极限可以<strong>转成函数极限</strong>再算（把 <span><span>nn</span><span><span><span></span><span>n</span></span></span></span> 换成 <span><span>xx</span><span><span><span></span><span>x</span></span></span></span>），这样就能用洛必达。数列本身不连续，<strong>不能直接对 <span><span>nn</span><span><span><span></span><span>n</span></span></span></span> 求导</strong>。</p><p><strong>例 8（夹逼）</strong> 求 <span><span>lim⁡n→∞∑k=1nnn2+k\displaystyle\lim_{n\to\infty}\sum_{k=1}^n\frac{n}{n^2+k}</span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span>n</span><span>→</span><span>∞</span></span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span>lim</span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span>k</span><span>=</span><span>1</span></span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span>∑</span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span>n</span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span><span><span></span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span>n</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>2</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span><span>+</span><span></span><span>k</span></span></span><span><span></span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span>n</span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span></span></span></span></span>。</p><p><strong>解</strong> 每一项满足 <span><span>nn2+n≤nn2+k≤nn2+1\dfrac{n}{n^2+n}\le\dfrac{n}{n^2+k}\le\dfrac{n}{n^2+1}</span><span><span><span></span><span><span></span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span>n</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>2</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span><span>+</span><span></span><span>n</span></span></span><span><span></span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span>n</span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span></span><span></span><span>≤</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span></span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span>n</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>2</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span><span>+</span><span></span><span>k</span></span></span><span><span></span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span>n</span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span></span><span></span><span>≤</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span></span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span>n</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>2</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span><span>+</span><span></span><span>1</span></span></span><span><span></span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span>n</span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span></span></span></span></span>，求和得</p><span><span><span>n2n2+n≤∑k=1nnn2+k≤n2n2+1.\frac{n^2}{n^2+n}\le\sum_{k=1}^n\frac{n}{n^2+k}\le\frac{n^2}{n^2+1}.</span><span><span><span></span><span><span></span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span>n</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>2</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span><span>+</span><span></span><span>n</span></span></span><span><span></span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span><span>n</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>2</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span></span><span></span><span>≤</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span>k</span><span>=</span><span>1</span></span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span>∑</span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span>n</span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span><span><span></span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span>n</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>2</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span><span>+</span><span></span><span>k</span></span></span><span><span></span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span>n</span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span></span><span></span><span>≤</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span></span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span>n</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>2</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span><span>+</span><span></span><span>1</span></span></span><span><span></span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span><span>n</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>2</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span></span><span>.</span></span></span></span></span><p>两边都趋于 <span><span>11</span><span><span><span></span><span>1</span></span></span></span>，所以极限为 <span><span>1\boxed{1}</span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span><span>1</span></span></span></span></span><span><span></span><span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span>。</p><p><strong>例 9（单调有界）</strong> 设 <span><span>x1=2x_1=\sqrt2</span><span><span><span></span><span><span>x</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>1</span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span><span>=</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span>2</span></span><span><span></span><span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span>，<span><span>xn+1=2+xnx_{n+1}=\sqrt{2+x_n}</span><span><span><span></span><span><span>x</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span>n</span><span>+</span><span>1</span></span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span><span>=</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>2</span><span></span><span>+</span><span></span><span><span>x</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>n</span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span><span></span><span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span>，证明 <span><span>{xn}\{x_n\}</span><span><span><span></span><span>{</span><span><span>x</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>n</span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span>}</span></span></span></span> 收敛并求极限。</p><p><strong>解</strong> 套路固定为三步：</p><ol>
<li><strong>有界</strong>（数学归纳法）：<span><span>x1=2&lt;2x_1=\sqrt2&lt;2</span><span><span><span></span><span><span>x</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>1</span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span><span>=</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span>2</span></span><span><span></span><span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span><span>&lt;</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>2</span></span></span></span>；若 <span><span>xn&lt;2x_n&lt;2</span><span><span><span></span><span><span>x</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>n</span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span><span>&lt;</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>2</span></span></span></span>，则 <span><span>xn+1=2+xn&lt;4=2x_{n+1}=\sqrt{2+x_n}&lt;\sqrt4=2</span><span><span><span></span><span><span>x</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span>n</span><span>+</span><span>1</span></span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span><span>=</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>2</span><span></span><span>+</span><span></span><span><span>x</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>n</span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span><span></span><span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span><span>&lt;</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span>4</span></span><span><span></span><span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span><span>=</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>2</span></span></span></span>。所以 <span><span>0&lt;xn&lt;20&lt;x_n&lt;2</span><span><span><span></span><span>0</span><span></span><span>&lt;</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span>x</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>n</span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span><span>&lt;</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>2</span></span></span></span>。</li>
<li><strong>单调</strong>：<span><span>xn+12−xn2=2+xn−xn2=(2−xn)(1+xn)&gt;0x_{n+1}^2-x_n^2=2+x_n-x_n^2=(2-x_n)(1+x_n)&gt;0</span><span><span><span></span><span><span>x</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span>n</span><span>+</span><span>1</span></span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span>2</span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span><span>−</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span>x</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>n</span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span>2</span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span><span>=</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>2</span><span></span><span>+</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span>x</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>n</span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span><span>−</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span>x</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>n</span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span>2</span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span><span>=</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>(</span><span>2</span><span></span><span>−</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span>x</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>n</span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span>)</span><span>(</span><span>1</span><span></span><span>+</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span>x</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>n</span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span>)</span><span></span><span>&gt;</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>0</span></span></span></span>，所以 <span><span>xn+1&gt;xnx_{n+1}&gt;x_n</span><span><span><span></span><span><span>x</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span>n</span><span>+</span><span>1</span></span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span><span>&gt;</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span>x</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>n</span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span>，单调递增。</li>
<li><strong>求极限</strong>：单调有界必收敛，设极限为 <span><span>AA</span><span><span><span></span><span>A</span></span></span></span>，对递推式两边取极限得 <span><span>A=2+AA=\sqrt{2+A}</span><span><span><span></span><span>A</span><span></span><span>=</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>2</span><span></span><span>+</span><span></span><span>A</span></span></span><span><span></span><span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span>，解得 <span><span>A=2A=2</span><span><span><span></span><span>A</span><span></span><span>=</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>2</span></span></span></span>（<span><span>A=−1A=-1</span><span><span><span></span><span>A</span><span></span><span>=</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>−</span><span>1</span></span></span></span> 舍去，因为 <span><span>xn&gt;0x_n&gt;0</span><span><span><span></span><span><span>x</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>n</span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span><span>&gt;</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>0</span></span></span></span>）。</li>
</ol><div><div><div></div><div>易错</div></div><div><p>必须<strong>先证明极限存在</strong>，才能对递推式两边取极限。否则会出现类似这样的错误：<span><span>xn+1=2xnx_{n+1}=2x_n</span><span><span><span></span><span><span>x</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span>n</span><span>+</span><span>1</span></span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span><span>=</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>2</span><span><span>x</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>n</span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span>，“设极限为 <span><span>AA</span><span><span><span></span><span>A</span></span></span></span>”，得 <span><span>A=2AA=2A</span><span><span><span></span><span>A</span><span></span><span>=</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>2</span><span>A</span></span></span></span>，<span><span>A=0A=0</span><span><span><span></span><span>A</span><span></span><span>=</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>0</span></span></span></span>，但这个数列其实是发散的。</p></div></div></section><section><h3>题型 7：无穷小比较与反求参数<a href="#题型-7无穷小比较与反求参数"><span>#</span></a></h3><p><strong>解法</strong>：把两个无穷小都化成 <span><span>cxkcx^k</span><span><span><span></span><span>c</span><span><span>x</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>k</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span> 的形式（用等价或泰勒），比较 <span><span>kk</span><span><span><span></span><span>k</span></span></span></span> 和 <span><span>cc</span><span><span><span></span><span>c</span></span></span></span>。</p><p><strong>例 10</strong> 当 <span><span>x→0x\to0</span><span><span><span></span><span>x</span><span></span><span>→</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>0</span></span></span></span> 时，<span><span>(1+ax2)13−1(1+ax^2)^{\frac13}-1</span><span><span><span></span><span>(</span><span>1</span><span></span><span>+</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>a</span><span><span>x</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>2</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span><span>)</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span>3</span></span></span></span><span><span></span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span><span>1</span></span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span><span>−</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>1</span></span></span></span> 与 <span><span>cos⁡x−1\cos x-1</span><span><span><span></span><span>cos</span><span></span><span>x</span><span></span><span>−</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>1</span></span></span></span> 是等价无穷小，求 <span><span>aa</span><span><span><span></span><span>a</span></span></span></span>。</p><p><strong>解</strong> <span><span>(1+ax2)13−1∼a3x2(1+ax^2)^{\frac13}-1\sim\dfrac{a}{3}x^2</span><span><span><span></span><span>(</span><span>1</span><span></span><span>+</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>a</span><span><span>x</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>2</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span><span>)</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span>3</span></span></span></span><span><span></span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span><span>1</span></span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span><span>−</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>1</span><span></span><span>∼</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span></span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>3</span></span></span><span><span></span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span>a</span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span></span><span><span>x</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>2</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span>，<span><span>cos⁡x−1∼−x22\cos x-1\sim-\dfrac{x^2}{2}</span><span><span><span></span><span>cos</span><span></span><span>x</span><span></span><span>−</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>1</span><span></span><span>∼</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>−</span><span><span></span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>2</span></span></span><span><span></span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span><span>x</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>2</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span></span></span></span></span>。等价要求 <span><span>a3=−12\dfrac a3=-\dfrac12</span><span><span><span></span><span><span></span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>3</span></span></span><span><span></span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span>a</span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span></span><span></span><span>=</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>−</span><span><span></span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>2</span></span></span><span><span></span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span>1</span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span></span></span></span></span>，所以 <span><span>a=−32\boxed{a=-\dfrac32}</span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span><span>a</span><span></span><span>=</span><span></span><span>−</span><span><span></span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>2</span></span></span><span><span></span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span>3</span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span><span></span><span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span>。</p><p><strong>例 11</strong> 已知 <span><span>lim⁡x→0ln⁡(1+x)−(ax+bx2)x2=2\displaystyle\lim_{x\to0}\frac{\ln(1+x)-(ax+bx^2)}{x^2}=2</span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span>x</span><span>→</span><span>0</span></span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span>lim</span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span><span><span></span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span>x</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>2</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span><span></span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span>ln</span><span>(</span><span>1</span><span></span><span>+</span><span></span><span>x</span><span>)</span><span></span><span>−</span><span></span><span>(</span><span>a</span><span>x</span><span></span><span>+</span><span></span><span>b</span><span><span>x</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>2</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span>)</span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span></span><span></span><span>=</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>2</span></span></span></span>，求 <span><span>a,ba,b</span><span><span><span></span><span>a</span><span>,</span><span></span><span>b</span></span></span></span>。</p><p><strong>解</strong> 分子泰勒展开：</p><span><span><span>ln⁡(1+x)−ax−bx2=(1−a)x+(−12−b)x2+o(x2).\ln(1+x)-ax-bx^2=(1-a)x+\left(-\frac12-b\right)x^2+o(x^2).</span><span><span><span></span><span>ln</span><span>(</span><span>1</span><span></span><span>+</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>x</span><span>)</span><span></span><span>−</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>a</span><span>x</span><span></span><span>−</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>b</span><span><span>x</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>2</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span><span>=</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>(</span><span>1</span><span></span><span>−</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>a</span><span>)</span><span>x</span><span></span><span>+</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span><span>(</span></span><span>−</span><span><span></span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>2</span></span></span><span><span></span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span>1</span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span></span><span></span><span>−</span><span></span><span>b</span><span><span>)</span></span></span><span></span><span><span>x</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>2</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span><span>+</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>o</span><span>(</span><span><span>x</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>2</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span>)</span><span>.</span></span></span></span></span><p>除以 <span><span>x2x^2</span><span><span><span></span><span><span>x</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>2</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span> 后极限存在，<span><span>xx</span><span><span><span></span><span>x</span></span></span></span> 的系数必须为 <span><span>00</span><span><span><span></span><span>0</span></span></span></span>：<span><span>a=1a=1</span><span><span><span></span><span>a</span><span></span><span>=</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>1</span></span></span></span>；再令 <span><span>−12−b=2-\frac12-b=2</span><span><span><span></span><span>−</span><span><span></span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span>2</span></span></span></span><span><span></span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span><span>1</span></span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span></span><span></span><span>−</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>b</span><span></span><span>=</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>2</span></span></span></span>，得 <span><span>b=−52b=-\frac52</span><span><span><span></span><span>b</span><span></span><span>=</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>−</span><span><span></span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span>2</span></span></span></span><span><span></span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span><span>5</span></span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span></span></span></span></span>。</p><div><div><div></div><div>反求参数的通用思路</div></div><div><p>极限是有限值，而分母趋于 <span><span>00</span><span><span><span></span><span>0</span></span></span></span>，那么分子也必须趋于 <span><span>00</span><span><span><span></span><span>0</span></span></span></span>。泰勒展开后，从低阶到高阶逐项让系数满足条件。</p></div></div></section><section><h3>题型 8：间断点分类<a href="#题型-8间断点分类"><span>#</span></a></h3><p><strong>解法步骤</strong>：</p><ol>
<li>找可疑点：分母为 <span><span>00</span><span><span><span></span><span>0</span></span></span></span> 的点、分段点、对数和根号的定义域端点。</li>
<li>对每个点分别求左右极限。</li>
<li>对照分类表下结论。</li>
</ol><p><strong>例 12</strong> 求 <span><span>f(x)=x2−x∣x∣(x2−1)f(x)=\dfrac{x^2-x}{|x|(x^2-1)}</span><span><span><span></span><span>f</span><span>(</span><span>x</span><span>)</span><span></span><span>=</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span></span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>∣</span><span>x</span><span>∣</span><span>(</span><span><span>x</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>2</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span><span>−</span><span></span><span>1</span><span>)</span></span></span><span><span></span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span><span>x</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>2</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span><span>−</span><span></span><span>x</span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span></span></span></span></span> 的间断点并分类。</p><p><strong>解</strong> 可疑点为 <span><span>x=0,±1x=0,\pm1</span><span><span><span></span><span>x</span><span></span><span>=</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>0</span><span>,</span><span></span><span>±</span><span>1</span></span></span></span>。当 <span><span>x≠1x\ne1</span><span><span><span></span><span>x</span><span></span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span><span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span><span>=</span></span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>1</span></span></span></span> 时，约去 <span><span>x−1x-1</span><span><span><span></span><span>x</span><span></span><span>−</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>1</span></span></span></span>，得 <span><span>f(x)=x∣x∣(x+1)f(x)=\dfrac{x}{|x|(x+1)}</span><span><span><span></span><span>f</span><span>(</span><span>x</span><span>)</span><span></span><span>=</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span></span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>∣</span><span>x</span><span>∣</span><span>(</span><span>x</span><span></span><span>+</span><span></span><span>1</span><span>)</span></span></span><span><span></span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span>x</span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span></span></span></span></span>。</p><ul>
<li><span><span>x=0x=0</span><span><span><span></span><span>x</span><span></span><span>=</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>0</span></span></span></span>：<span><span>x∣x∣\dfrac{x}{|x|}</span><span><span><span></span><span><span></span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>∣</span><span>x</span><span>∣</span></span></span><span><span></span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span>x</span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span></span></span></span></span> 在左侧为 <span><span>−1-1</span><span><span><span></span><span>−</span><span>1</span></span></span></span>，右侧为 <span><span>11</span><span><span><span></span><span>1</span></span></span></span>，所以 <span><span>f(0−)=−1f(0^-)=-1</span><span><span><span></span><span>f</span><span>(</span><span><span>0</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>−</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span>)</span><span></span><span>=</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>−</span><span>1</span></span></span></span>，<span><span>f(0+)=1f(0^+)=1</span><span><span><span></span><span>f</span><span>(</span><span><span>0</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>+</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span>)</span><span></span><span>=</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>1</span></span></span></span>，是<strong>跳跃间断点</strong>。</li>
<li><span><span>x=1x=1</span><span><span><span></span><span>x</span><span></span><span>=</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>1</span></span></span></span>：<span><span>lim⁡x→1f(x)=11⋅2=12\lim\limits_{x\to1}f(x)=\dfrac{1}{1\cdot2}=\dfrac12</span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span>x</span><span>→</span><span>1</span></span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span>lim</span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span><span>f</span><span>(</span><span>x</span><span>)</span><span></span><span>=</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span></span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>1</span><span></span><span>⋅</span><span></span><span>2</span></span></span><span><span></span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span>1</span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span></span><span></span><span>=</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span></span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>2</span></span></span><span><span></span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span>1</span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span></span></span></span></span>，但 <span><span>f(1)f(1)</span><span><span><span></span><span>f</span><span>(</span><span>1</span><span>)</span></span></span></span> 无定义，是<strong>可去间断点</strong>。</li>
<li><span><span>x=−1x=-1</span><span><span><span></span><span>x</span><span></span><span>=</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>−</span><span>1</span></span></span></span>：在 <span><span>−1-1</span><span><span><span></span><span>−</span><span>1</span></span></span></span> 附近 <span><span>x∣x∣=−1\dfrac{x}{|x|}=-1</span><span><span><span></span><span><span></span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>∣</span><span>x</span><span>∣</span></span></span><span><span></span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span>x</span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span></span><span></span><span>=</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>−</span><span>1</span></span></span></span>，<span><span>f(x)=−1x+1→∞f(x)=-\dfrac{1}{x+1}\to\infty</span><span><span><span></span><span>f</span><span>(</span><span>x</span><span>)</span><span></span><span>=</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>−</span><span><span></span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>x</span><span></span><span>+</span><span></span><span>1</span></span></span><span><span></span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span>1</span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span></span><span></span><span>→</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>∞</span></span></span></span>，是<strong>无穷间断点</strong>。</li>
</ul></section><section><h3>题型 9：零点定理证明方程有根<a href="#题型-9零点定理证明方程有根"><span>#</span></a></h3><p><strong>闭区间上连续函数的性质</strong>：</p><ul>
<li><strong>最值定理</strong>：在 <span><span>[a,b][a,b]</span><span><span><span></span><span>[</span><span>a</span><span>,</span><span></span><span>b</span><span>]</span></span></span></span> 上连续，必有最大值和最小值（因此必有界）。</li>
<li><strong>介值定理</strong>：能取到最大值和最小值之间的任何值。</li>
<li><strong>零点定理</strong>：若 <span><span>f(a)f(b)&lt;0f(a)f(b)&lt;0</span><span><span><span></span><span>f</span><span>(</span><span>a</span><span>)</span><span>f</span><span>(</span><span>b</span><span>)</span><span></span><span>&lt;</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>0</span></span></span></span>，则存在 <span><span>ξ∈(a,b)\xi\in(a,b)</span><span><span><span></span><span>ξ</span><span></span><span>∈</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>(</span><span>a</span><span>,</span><span></span><span>b</span><span>)</span></span></span></span>，使 <span><span>f(ξ)=0f(\xi)=0</span><span><span><span></span><span>f</span><span>(</span><span>ξ</span><span>)</span><span></span><span>=</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>0</span></span></span></span>。</li>
</ul><p><strong>例 13</strong> 证明方程 <span><span>x5−3x=1x^5-3x=1</span><span><span><span></span><span><span>x</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>5</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span><span>−</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>3</span><span>x</span><span></span><span>=</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>1</span></span></span></span> 在 <span><span>(1,2)(1,2)</span><span><span><span></span><span>(</span><span>1</span><span>,</span><span></span><span>2</span><span>)</span></span></span></span> 内至少有一个根。</p><p><strong>证</strong> 令 <span><span>f(x)=x5−3x−1f(x)=x^5-3x-1</span><span><span><span></span><span>f</span><span>(</span><span>x</span><span>)</span><span></span><span>=</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span>x</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>5</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span><span>−</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>3</span><span>x</span><span></span><span>−</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>1</span></span></span></span>，它在 <span><span>[1,2][1,2]</span><span><span><span></span><span>[</span><span>1</span><span>,</span><span></span><span>2</span><span>]</span></span></span></span> 上连续。<span><span>f(1)=−3&lt;0f(1)=-3&lt;0</span><span><span><span></span><span>f</span><span>(</span><span>1</span><span>)</span><span></span><span>=</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>−</span><span>3</span><span></span><span>&lt;</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>0</span></span></span></span>，<span><span>f(2)=25&gt;0f(2)=25&gt;0</span><span><span><span></span><span>f</span><span>(</span><span>2</span><span>)</span><span></span><span>=</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>25</span><span></span><span>&gt;</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>0</span></span></span></span>，由零点定理，存在 <span><span>ξ∈(1,2)\xi\in(1,2)</span><span><span><span></span><span>ξ</span><span></span><span>∈</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>(</span><span>1</span><span>,</span><span></span><span>2</span><span>)</span></span></span></span> 使 <span><span>f(ξ)=0f(\xi)=0</span><span><span><span></span><span>f</span><span>(</span><span>ξ</span><span>)</span><span></span><span>=</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>0</span></span></span></span>。</p><div><div><div></div><div>证“恰有一个根”</div></div><div><p>零点定理只能证明“至少一个”。要证“恰好一个”，再加上<strong>单调性</strong>（下一篇用导数判断）。</p></div></div></section></section>
<section><h2>五、证明思路<a href="#五证明思路"><span>#</span></a></h2><section><h3>1. 为什么 <span><span>lim⁡x→0sin⁡xx=1\lim\limits_{x\to0}\frac{\sin x}{x}=1</span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span>x</span><span>→</span><span>0</span></span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span>lim</span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span><span><span></span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span>x</span></span></span></span><span><span></span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span><span><span>s</span><span>i</span><span>n</span></span><span></span><span>x</span></span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span></span><span></span><span>=</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>1</span></span></span></span><a href="#1-为什么-limx0sinxx1limlimits_xto0fracsin-xx1x0limxsinx1"><span>#</span></a></h3><p>在单位圆中，对 <span><span>0&lt;x&lt;π20&lt;x&lt;\frac\pi2</span><span><span><span></span><span>0</span><span></span><span>&lt;</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>x</span><span></span><span>&lt;</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span></span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span>2</span></span></span></span><span><span></span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span><span>π</span></span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span></span></span></span></span>，比较三块面积：三角形 <span><span>&lt;&lt;</span><span><span><span></span><span>&lt;</span></span></span></span> 扇形 <span><span>&lt;&lt;</span><span><span><span></span><span>&lt;</span></span></span></span> 大三角形，即</p><span><span><span>12sin⁡x&lt;12x&lt;12tan⁡x ⟹ cos⁡x&lt;sin⁡xx&lt;1.\frac12\sin x&lt;\frac12x&lt;\frac12\tan x\ \Longrightarrow\ \cos x&lt;\frac{\sin x}{x}&lt;1.</span><span><span><span></span><span><span></span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>2</span></span></span><span><span></span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span>1</span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span></span><span></span><span>sin</span><span></span><span>x</span><span></span><span>&lt;</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span></span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>2</span></span></span><span><span></span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span>1</span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span></span><span>x</span><span></span><span>&lt;</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span></span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>2</span></span></span><span><span></span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span>1</span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span></span><span></span><span>tan</span><span></span><span>x</span><span> </span><span></span><span>⟹</span><span> </span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>cos</span><span></span><span>x</span><span></span><span>&lt;</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span></span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>x</span></span></span><span><span></span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span>sin</span><span></span><span>x</span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span></span><span></span><span>&lt;</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>1.</span></span></span></span></span><p><span><span>cos⁡x→1\cos x\to1</span><span><span><span></span><span>cos</span><span></span><span>x</span><span></span><span>→</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>1</span></span></span></span>，由夹逼准则得极限为 <span><span>11</span><span><span><span></span><span>1</span></span></span></span>。<span><span>x&lt;0x&lt;0</span><span><span><span></span><span>x</span><span></span><span>&lt;</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>0</span></span></span></span> 时由偶函数性质同样成立。</p></section><section><h3>2. 为什么等价替换只能替换乘除因子<a href="#2-为什么等价替换只能替换乘除因子"><span>#</span></a></h3><p>若 <span><span>α∼α′\alpha\sim\alpha'</span><span><span><span></span><span>α</span><span></span><span>∼</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span>α</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span>′</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span>，则</p><span><span><span>lim⁡αβ=lim⁡αα′⋅α′β=1⋅lim⁡α′β.\lim\alpha\beta=\lim\frac{\alpha}{\alpha'}\cdot\alpha'\beta=1\cdot\lim\alpha'\beta.</span><span><span><span></span><span>lim</span><span></span><span>α</span><span>β</span><span></span><span>=</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>lim</span><span></span><span><span></span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span>α</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span>′</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span><span></span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span>α</span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span></span><span></span><span>⋅</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span>α</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span>′</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span>β</span><span></span><span>=</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>1</span><span></span><span>⋅</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>lim</span><span></span><span><span>α</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span>′</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span>β</span><span>.</span></span></span></span></span><p>这一步只依赖“乘一个趋于 <span><span>11</span><span><span><span></span><span>1</span></span></span></span> 的因子”。加减时没有这样的因子可以拆出来，替换会丢掉高阶项，所以不成立。</p></section><section><h3>3. 为什么 <span><span>lim⁡uv=elim⁡v(u−1)\lim u^v=e^{\lim v(u-1)}</span><span><span><span></span><span>lim</span><span></span><span><span>u</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>v</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span><span>=</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span>e</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span><span>l</span><span>i</span><span>m</span></span><span></span><span>v</span><span>(</span><span>u</span><span>−</span><span>1</span><span>)</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><a href="#3-为什么-limuvelimvu1lim-uvelim-vu-1limuvelimvu1"><span>#</span></a></h3><p><span><span>uv=evln⁡uu^v=e^{v\ln u}</span><span><span><span></span><span><span>u</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>v</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span><span>=</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span>e</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span>v</span><span></span><span><span>l</span><span>n</span></span><span></span><span>u</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span>，而 <span><span>u→1u\to1</span><span><span><span></span><span>u</span><span></span><span>→</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>1</span></span></span></span> 时 <span><span>ln⁡u=ln⁡(1+(u−1))∼u−1\ln u=\ln\bigl(1+(u-1)\bigr)\sim u-1</span><span><span><span></span><span>ln</span><span></span><span>u</span><span></span><span>=</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>ln</span><span><span>(</span></span><span>1</span><span></span><span>+</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>(</span><span>u</span><span></span><span>−</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>1</span><span>)</span><span><span>)</span></span><span></span><span>∼</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>u</span><span></span><span>−</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>1</span></span></span></span>，所以 <span><span>vln⁡uv\ln u</span><span><span><span></span><span>v</span><span></span><span>ln</span><span></span><span>u</span></span></span></span> 与 <span><span>v(u−1)v(u-1)</span><span><span><span></span><span>v</span><span>(</span><span>u</span><span></span><span>−</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>1</span><span>)</span></span></span></span> 的极限相同。</p></section><section><h3>4. 为什么零点定理成立（二分法）<a href="#4-为什么零点定理成立二分法"><span>#</span></a></h3><p>把 <span><span>[a,b][a,b]</span><span><span><span></span><span>[</span><span>a</span><span>,</span><span></span><span>b</span><span>]</span></span></span></span> 对半分，总有一半端点处函数值异号；不断对半分，得到一串长度趋于 <span><span>00</span><span><span><span></span><span>0</span></span></span></span> 的闭区间，它们收缩到一点 <span><span>ξ\xi</span><span><span><span></span><span>ξ</span></span></span></span>。由连续性，<span><span>f(ξ)f(\xi)</span><span><span><span></span><span>f</span><span>(</span><span>ξ</span><span>)</span></span></span></span> 既 <span><span>≤0\le0</span><span><span><span></span><span>≤</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>0</span></span></span></span> 又 <span><span>≥0\ge0</span><span><span><span></span><span>≥</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>0</span></span></span></span>，所以 <span><span>f(ξ)=0f(\xi)=0</span><span><span><span></span><span>f</span><span>(</span><span>ξ</span><span>)</span><span></span><span>=</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>0</span></span></span></span>。</p></section></section>
<section><h2>六、易错点<a href="#六易错点"><span>#</span></a></h2><div><div><div></div><div>洛必达的条件</div></div><div><p>洛必达要求“求导后的极限存在或为 <span><span>∞\infty</span><span><span><span></span><span>∞</span></span></span></span>”。如果求导后极限不存在，<strong>不能说明原极限不存在</strong>。</p><p>例如 <span><span>lim⁡x→∞x+sin⁡xx\lim\limits_{x\to\infty}\dfrac{x+\sin x}{x}</span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span>x</span><span>→</span><span>∞</span></span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span>lim</span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span><span><span></span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>x</span></span></span><span><span></span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span>x</span><span></span><span>+</span><span></span><span>sin</span><span></span><span>x</span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span></span></span></span></span>：洛必达后得到 <span><span>lim⁡(1+cos⁡x)\lim(1+\cos x)</span><span><span><span></span><span>lim</span><span>(</span><span>1</span><span></span><span>+</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>cos</span><span></span><span>x</span><span>)</span></span></span></span>，不存在；但原式 <span><span>=lim⁡(1+sin⁡xx)=1=\lim\left(1+\dfrac{\sin x}{x}\right)=1</span><span><span><span></span><span>=</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>lim</span><span></span><span><span><span>(</span></span><span>1</span><span></span><span>+</span><span></span><span><span></span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>x</span></span></span><span><span></span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span>sin</span><span></span><span>x</span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span></span><span><span>)</span></span></span><span></span><span>=</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>1</span></span></span></span>。</p></div></div><ul>
<li><strong>加减中乱用等价替换</strong>：<span><span>tan⁡x−sin⁡x\tan x-\sin x</span><span><span><span></span><span>tan</span><span></span><span>x</span><span></span><span>−</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>sin</span><span></span><span>x</span></span></span></span> 不能替换成 <span><span>x−x=0x-x=0</span><span><span><span></span><span>x</span><span></span><span>−</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>x</span><span></span><span>=</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>0</span></span></span></span>。</li>
<li><strong>忘记分左右</strong>：<span><span>e1/xe^{1/x}</span><span><span><span></span><span><span>e</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span>1/</span><span>x</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span>、<span><span>arctan⁡1x\arctan\frac1x</span><span><span><span></span><span>arctan</span><span></span><span><span></span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span>x</span></span></span></span><span><span></span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span><span>1</span></span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span></span></span></span></span>、<span><span>∣x∣|x|</span><span><span><span></span><span>∣</span><span>x</span><span>∣</span></span></span></span>、分段函数，以及 <span><span>x→∞x\to\infty</span><span><span><span></span><span>x</span><span></span><span>→</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>∞</span></span></span></span> 时的 <span><span>exe^x</span><span><span><span></span><span><span>e</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>x</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span>。</li>
<li><strong><span><span>x→0x\to0</span><span><span><span></span><span>x</span><span></span><span>→</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>0</span></span></span></span> 和 <span><span>x→∞x\to\infty</span><span><span><span></span><span>x</span><span></span><span>→</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>∞</span></span></span></span> 搞混</strong>：<span><span>lim⁡x→0xsin⁡1x=0\lim\limits_{x\to0}x\sin\frac1x=0</span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span>x</span><span>→</span><span>0</span></span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span>lim</span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span><span>x</span><span></span><span>sin</span><span></span><span><span></span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span>x</span></span></span></span><span><span></span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span><span>1</span></span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span></span><span></span><span>=</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>0</span></span></span></span>（无穷小乘有界），但 <span><span>lim⁡x→∞xsin⁡1x=1\lim\limits_{x\to\infty}x\sin\frac1x=1</span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span>x</span><span>→</span><span>∞</span></span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span>lim</span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span><span>x</span><span></span><span>sin</span><span></span><span><span></span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span>x</span></span></span></span><span><span></span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span><span>1</span></span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span></span><span></span><span>=</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>1</span></span></span></span>（<span><span>sin⁡1x∼1x\sin\frac1x\sim\frac1x</span><span><span><span></span><span>sin</span><span></span><span><span></span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span>x</span></span></span></span><span><span></span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span><span>1</span></span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span></span><span></span><span>∼</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span></span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span>x</span></span></span></span><span><span></span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span><span>1</span></span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span></span></span></span></span>）。</li>
<li><strong>1^∞ 当成 1</strong>：<span><span>(1+1x)x(1+\frac1x)^x</span><span><span><span></span><span>(</span><span>1</span><span></span><span>+</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span></span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span>x</span></span></span></span><span><span></span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span><span>1</span></span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span></span><span><span>)</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>x</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span> 的底数趋于 <span><span>11</span><span><span><span></span><span>1</span></span></span></span>，但结果是 <span><span>ee</span><span><span><span></span><span>e</span></span></span></span>。</li>
<li><strong>数列直接用洛必达</strong>：要先换成函数极限。</li>
<li><strong>递推数列没证收敛就求极限</strong>。</li>
<li><strong>保号性的方向</strong>：<span><span>f(x)&gt;0f(x)&gt;0</span><span><span><span></span><span>f</span><span>(</span><span>x</span><span>)</span><span></span><span>&gt;</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>0</span></span></span></span> 只能推出极限 <span><span>≥0\ge0</span><span><span><span></span><span>≥</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>0</span></span></span></span>。</li>
</ul></section>
<section><h2>七、小练习<a href="#七小练习"><span>#</span></a></h2><p><strong>1.</strong> 求 <span><span>lim⁡x→0x−sin⁡xx2ln⁡(1+x)\displaystyle\lim_{x\to0}\frac{x-\sin x}{x^2\ln(1+x)}</span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span>x</span><span>→</span><span>0</span></span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span>lim</span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span><span><span></span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span>x</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>2</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span><span>ln</span><span>(</span><span>1</span><span></span><span>+</span><span></span><span>x</span><span>)</span></span></span><span><span></span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span>x</span><span></span><span>−</span><span></span><span>sin</span><span></span><span>x</span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span></span></span></span></span>。</p>
点击查看答案<p>分母 <span><span>x2ln⁡(1+x)∼x3x^2\ln(1+x)\sim x^3</span><span><span><span></span><span><span>x</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>2</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span><span>ln</span><span>(</span><span>1</span><span></span><span>+</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>x</span><span>)</span><span></span><span>∼</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span>x</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>3</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span>，分子 <span><span>x−sin⁡x∼x36x-\sin x\sim\dfrac{x^3}{6}</span><span><span><span></span><span>x</span><span></span><span>−</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>sin</span><span></span><span>x</span><span></span><span>∼</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span></span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>6</span></span></span><span><span></span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span><span>x</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>3</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span></span></span></span></span>，所以极限为 <span><span>16\dfrac16</span><span><span><span></span><span><span></span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>6</span></span></span><span><span></span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span>1</span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span></span></span></span></span>。</p><p><strong>2.</strong> 求 <span><span>lim⁡x→0(1+2x)1sin⁡x\displaystyle\lim_{x\to0}(1+2x)^{\frac1{\sin x}}</span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span>x</span><span>→</span><span>0</span></span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span>lim</span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span><span>(</span><span>1</span><span></span><span>+</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>2</span><span>x</span><span><span>)</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span><span>s</span><span>i</span><span>n</span></span><span></span><span>x</span></span></span></span><span><span></span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span><span>1</span></span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span>。</p>
点击查看答案<p>1^∞ 型：<span><span>v(u−1)=2xsin⁡x→2v(u-1)=\dfrac{2x}{\sin x}\to2</span><span><span><span></span><span>v</span><span>(</span><span>u</span><span></span><span>−</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>1</span><span>)</span><span></span><span>=</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span></span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>sin</span><span></span><span>x</span></span></span><span><span></span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span>2</span><span>x</span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span></span><span></span><span>→</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>2</span></span></span></span>，所以极限为 <span><span>e2e^2</span><span><span><span></span><span><span>e</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>2</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span>。</p><p><strong>3.</strong> 求 <span><span>lim⁡x→0ex−esin⁡xx−sin⁡x\displaystyle\lim_{x\to0}\frac{e^x-e^{\sin x}}{x-\sin x}</span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span>x</span><span>→</span><span>0</span></span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span>lim</span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span><span><span></span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>x</span><span></span><span>−</span><span></span><span>sin</span><span></span><span>x</span></span></span><span><span></span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span><span>e</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>x</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span><span>−</span><span></span><span><span>e</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span><span>s</span><span>i</span><span>n</span></span><span></span><span>x</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span></span></span></span></span>。</p>
点击查看答案<p>提出公因式：<span><span>ex−esin⁡x=esin⁡x(ex−sin⁡x−1)∼1⋅(x−sin⁡x)e^x-e^{\sin x}=e^{\sin x}\left(e^{x-\sin x}-1\right)\sim1\cdot(x-\sin x)</span><span><span><span></span><span><span>e</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>x</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span><span>−</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span>e</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span><span>s</span><span>i</span><span>n</span></span><span></span><span>x</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span><span>=</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span>e</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span><span>s</span><span>i</span><span>n</span></span><span></span><span>x</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span><span><span><span>(</span></span><span><span>e</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span>x</span><span>−</span><span><span>s</span><span>i</span><span>n</span></span><span></span><span>x</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span><span>−</span><span></span><span>1</span><span><span>)</span></span></span><span></span><span>∼</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>1</span><span></span><span>⋅</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>(</span><span>x</span><span></span><span>−</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>sin</span><span></span><span>x</span><span>)</span></span></span></span>，所以极限为 <span><span>11</span><span><span><span></span><span>1</span></span></span></span>。</p><p>套路：<strong>两个指数相减，先提公因式</strong>，再用 <span><span>e□−1∼□e^{\square}-1\sim\square</span><span><span><span></span><span><span>e</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span>□</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span><span>−</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>1</span><span></span><span>∼</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>□</span></span></span></span>。</p><p><strong>4.</strong> 求 <span><span>lim⁡n→∞(1+1n+1n2)n\displaystyle\lim_{n\to\infty}\left(1+\frac1n+\frac1{n^2}\right)^n</span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span>n</span><span>→</span><span>∞</span></span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span>lim</span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span><span><span><span><span>(</span></span><span>1</span><span></span><span>+</span><span></span><span><span></span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>n</span></span></span><span><span></span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span>1</span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span></span><span></span><span>+</span><span></span><span><span></span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span>n</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>2</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span><span></span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span>1</span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span></span><span><span>)</span></span></span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>n</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span>。</p>
点击查看答案<p>1^∞ 型：<span><span>v(u−1)=n(1n+1n2)=1+1n→1v(u-1)=n\left(\dfrac1n+\dfrac1{n^2}\right)=1+\dfrac1n\to1</span><span><span><span></span><span>v</span><span>(</span><span>u</span><span></span><span>−</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>1</span><span>)</span><span></span><span>=</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>n</span><span></span><span><span><span>(</span></span><span><span></span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>n</span></span></span><span><span></span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span>1</span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span></span><span></span><span>+</span><span></span><span><span></span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span>n</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>2</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span><span></span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span>1</span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span></span><span><span>)</span></span></span><span></span><span>=</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>1</span><span></span><span>+</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span></span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>n</span></span></span><span><span></span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span>1</span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span></span><span></span><span>→</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>1</span></span></span></span>，所以极限为 <span><span>ee</span><span><span><span></span><span>e</span></span></span></span>。</p><p><strong>5.</strong> 求 <span><span>f(x)=11−exx−1f(x)=\dfrac{1}{1-e^{\frac{x}{x-1}}}</span><span><span><span></span><span>f</span><span>(</span><span>x</span><span>)</span><span></span><span>=</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span></span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>1</span><span></span><span>−</span><span></span><span><span>e</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span>x</span><span>−</span><span>1</span></span></span></span><span><span></span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span><span>x</span></span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span><span></span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span>1</span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span></span></span></span></span> 的间断点并分类。</p>
点击查看答案<p>可疑点为 <span><span>x=0x=0</span><span><span><span></span><span>x</span><span></span><span>=</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>0</span></span></span></span>（分母 <span><span>1−e0=01-e^0=0</span><span><span><span></span><span>1</span><span></span><span>−</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span>e</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>0</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span><span>=</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>0</span></span></span></span>）和 <span><span>x=1x=1</span><span><span><span></span><span>x</span><span></span><span>=</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>1</span></span></span></span>（指数无定义）。</p><ul>
<li>
<p><span><span>x=0x=0</span><span><span><span></span><span>x</span><span></span><span>=</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>0</span></span></span></span>：<span><span>xx−1→0\dfrac{x}{x-1}\to0</span><span><span><span></span><span><span></span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>x</span><span></span><span>−</span><span></span><span>1</span></span></span><span><span></span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span>x</span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span></span><span></span><span>→</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>0</span></span></span></span>，分母 <span><span>→0\to0</span><span><span><span></span><span>→</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>0</span></span></span></span>，<span><span>f(x)→∞f(x)\to\infty</span><span><span><span></span><span>f</span><span>(</span><span>x</span><span>)</span><span></span><span>→</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>∞</span></span></span></span>，是<strong>无穷间断点</strong>。</p>
</li>
<li>
<p><span><span>x=1x=1</span><span><span><span></span><span>x</span><span></span><span>=</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>1</span></span></span></span>：</p>
<ul>
<li><span><span>x→1+x\to1^+</span><span><span><span></span><span>x</span><span></span><span>→</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span>1</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>+</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span> 时 <span><span>xx−1→+∞\dfrac{x}{x-1}\to+\infty</span><span><span><span></span><span><span></span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>x</span><span></span><span>−</span><span></span><span>1</span></span></span><span><span></span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span>x</span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span></span><span></span><span>→</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>+</span><span>∞</span></span></span></span>，<span><span>exx−1→+∞e^{\frac{x}{x-1}}\to+\infty</span><span><span><span></span><span><span>e</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span>x</span><span>−</span><span>1</span></span></span></span><span><span></span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span><span>x</span></span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span><span>→</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>+</span><span>∞</span></span></span></span>，<span><span>f(x)→0f(x)\to0</span><span><span><span></span><span>f</span><span>(</span><span>x</span><span>)</span><span></span><span>→</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>0</span></span></span></span>；</li>
<li><span><span>x→1−x\to1^-</span><span><span><span></span><span>x</span><span></span><span>→</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span>1</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>−</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span> 时 <span><span>xx−1→−∞\dfrac{x}{x-1}\to-\infty</span><span><span><span></span><span><span></span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>x</span><span></span><span>−</span><span></span><span>1</span></span></span><span><span></span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span>x</span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span></span><span></span><span>→</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>−</span><span>∞</span></span></span></span>，<span><span>exx−1→0e^{\frac{x}{x-1}}\to0</span><span><span><span></span><span><span>e</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span>x</span><span>−</span><span>1</span></span></span></span><span><span></span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span><span>x</span></span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span><span>→</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>0</span></span></span></span>，<span><span>f(x)→1f(x)\to1</span><span><span><span></span><span>f</span><span>(</span><span>x</span><span>)</span><span></span><span>→</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>1</span></span></span></span>。</li>
</ul>
<p>左右极限存在但不相等，是<strong>跳跃间断点</strong>。</p>
</li>
</ul></section>
<section><h2>八、本章小结<a href="#八本章小结"><span>#</span></a></h2><ul>
<li>求极限第一步永远是<strong>代入判断类型</strong>，然后按流程图选方法。</li>
<li>等价替换只用于<strong>乘除因子</strong>；加减用<strong>泰勒</strong>，展开到不能抵消为止。</li>
<li>1^∞ 直接套 <span><span>elim⁡v(u−1)e^{\lim v(u-1)}</span><span><span><span></span><span><span>e</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span><span>l</span><span>i</span><span>m</span></span><span></span><span>v</span><span>(</span><span>u</span><span>−</span><span>1</span><span>)</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span>；0^0、∞^0 先取对数。</li>
<li>递推数列用<strong>单调有界</strong>，并且要先证收敛；求和型用<strong>夹逼</strong>或<strong>定积分定义</strong>。</li>
<li>间断点：先找可疑点，再算左右极限，最后对照分类表。</li>
</ul><p>下一篇：<strong>02 导数与微分</strong>。</p></section>]]></content>
    </entry>
    <entry>
      <id>https://gsxbxsg.github.io/posts/gaoshu-02-derivative/</id>
      <title type="text">高数速成复习 02：导数与微分</title>
      <published>2026-10-03T00:00:00.000Z</published>
      <updated>2026-10-03T00:00:00.000Z</updated>
      <author><name>ELEC</name></author>
      <link rel="alternate" href="https://gsxbxsg.github.io/posts/gaoshu-02-derivative/"/>
      <summary type="text">导数定义是选择题的高频陷阱，求导是后面所有章节的基本功。本篇讲清导数定义的判断、可导性、各类求导方法、高阶导数和微分。</summary>
      <content type="html"><![CDATA[<p>这一章分两部分：<strong>导数定义</strong>（考概念，选择题常设陷阱）和<strong>求导计算</strong>（考熟练度，后面每章都要用）。目标是：定义题不踩坑，求导题不算错。</p>
<section><h2>一、本章地图<a href="#一本章地图"><span>#</span></a></h2>

<table><thead><tr><th>模块</th><th>要掌握什么</th><th>常见考法</th></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td>导数定义</td><td>定义式的变形、左右导数</td><td>选择题判断可导；用定义求导</td></tr><tr><td>可导性</td><td>可导与连续的关系、分段点、绝对值函数</td><td>选择、填空</td></tr><tr><td>求导法则</td><td>四则、复合、反函数</td><td>基本功</td></tr><tr><td>特殊求导</td><td>隐函数、参数方程、对数求导法</td><td>填空、解答</td></tr><tr><td>高阶导数</td><td>常见 <span><span>nn</span><span><span><span></span><span>n</span></span></span></span> 阶公式、莱布尼茨公式、泰勒法</td><td>填空</td></tr><tr><td>微分与应用</td><td>微分、切线法线、相关变化率</td><td>填空</td></tr></tbody></table><div><div><div><div><span></span></div><div><span></span></div><div><span></span></div><div><span></span></div><div><span></span></div><div><span></span></div><div><span></span></div><div><span></span></div><div><span></span></div><div><span><p>拿到求导题</p></span></div><div><span><p>函数怎么给出</p></span></div><div><span><p>显函数 y=f(x)</p></span></div><div><span><p>隐函数 F(x,y)=0</p></span></div><div><span><p>参数方程 x=x(t), y=y(t)</p></span></div><div><span><p>分段函数</p></span></div><div><span><p>复合函数：链式法则<br /><br />幂指函数/连乘：对数求导</p></span></div><div><span><p>两边对 x 求导，y 看成 y(x)</p></span></div><div><span><p>dy/dx = y'(t)/x'(t)</p></span></div><div><span><p>分段点用定义，其他点用公式</p></span></div>
</div><div><div><span></span></div><div><span></span></div><div><span></span></div><div><span></span></div><div><span></span></div><div><span></span></div><div><span></span></div><div><span></span></div><div><span></span></div><div><span><p>拿到求导题</p></span></div><div><span><p>函数怎么给出</p></span></div><div><span><p>显函数 y=f(x)</p></span></div><div><span><p>隐函数 F(x,y)=0</p></span></div><div><span><p>参数方程 x=x(t), y=y(t)</p></span></div><div><span><p>分段函数</p></span></div><div><span><p>复合函数：链式法则<br /><br />幂指函数/连乘：对数求导</p></span></div><div><span><p>两边对 x 求导，y 看成 y(x)</p></span></div><div><span><p>dy/dx = y'(t)/x'(t)</p></span></div><div><span><p>分段点用定义，其他点用公式</p></span></div>
</div></div></div></section>
<section><h2>二、核心概念<a href="#二核心概念"><span>#</span></a></h2><section><h3>1. 导数的定义<a href="#1-导数的定义"><span>#</span></a></h3><span><span><span>f′(x0)=lim⁡Δx→0f(x0+Δx)−f(x0)Δx=lim⁡x→x0f(x)−f(x0)x−x0.f'(x_0)=\lim_{\Delta x\to0}\frac{f(x_0+\Delta x)-f(x_0)}{\Delta x}=\lim_{x\to x_0}\frac{f(x)-f(x_0)}{x-x_0}.</span><span><span><span></span><span><span>f</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span>′</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span>(</span><span><span>x</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>0</span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span>)</span><span></span><span>=</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span>Δ</span><span>x</span><span>→</span><span>0</span></span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span>lim</span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span><span><span></span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>Δ</span><span>x</span></span></span><span><span></span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span>f</span><span>(</span><span><span>x</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>0</span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span><span>+</span><span></span><span>Δ</span><span>x</span><span>)</span><span></span><span>−</span><span></span><span>f</span><span>(</span><span><span>x</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>0</span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span>)</span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span></span><span></span><span>=</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span>x</span><span>→</span><span><span>x</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>0</span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span>lim</span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span><span><span></span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>x</span><span></span><span>−</span><span></span><span><span>x</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>0</span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span><span></span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span>f</span><span>(</span><span>x</span><span>)</span><span></span><span>−</span><span></span><span>f</span><span>(</span><span><span>x</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>0</span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span>)</span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span></span><span>.</span></span></span></span></span><p>大白话：<strong>导数是函数在一点处的瞬时变化率</strong>，几何意义是切线斜率。</p><div><div><div></div><div>定义式的结构（判断题全靠它）</div></div><div><p>一个合法的导数定义式必须同时满足：</p><ol>
<li><strong>一端固定</strong>：减去的必须是 <span><span>f(x0)f(x_0)</span><span><span><span></span><span>f</span><span>(</span><span><span>x</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>0</span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span>)</span></span></span></span> 本身；</li>
<li><strong>另一端动</strong>：动点 <span><span>x0+□x_0+\square</span><span><span><span></span><span><span>x</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>0</span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span><span>+</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>□</span></span></span></span> 中的 <span><span>□→0\square\to0</span><span><span><span></span><span>□</span><span></span><span>→</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>0</span></span></span></span>，且能<strong>从两侧</strong>趋于 <span><span>00</span><span><span><span></span><span>0</span></span></span></span>；</li>
<li><strong>分母与增量一致</strong>：分母正好是 <span><span>□\square</span><span><span><span></span><span>□</span></span></span></span>（或与它等价）。</li>
</ol></div></div></section><section><h3>2. 左右导数<a href="#2-左右导数"><span>#</span></a></h3><span><span><span>f−′(x0)=lim⁡x→x0−f(x)−f(x0)x−x0,f+′(x0)=lim⁡x→x0+f(x)−f(x0)x−x0.f'_-(x_0)=\lim_{x\to x_0^-}\frac{f(x)-f(x_0)}{x-x_0},\qquad f'_+(x_0)=\lim_{x\to x_0^+}\frac{f(x)-f(x_0)}{x-x_0}.</span><span><span><span></span><span><span>f</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>−</span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span><span>′</span></span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span>(</span><span><span>x</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>0</span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span>)</span><span></span><span>=</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span>x</span><span>→</span><span><span>x</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>0</span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span>−</span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span>lim</span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span><span><span></span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>x</span><span></span><span>−</span><span></span><span><span>x</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>0</span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span><span></span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span>f</span><span>(</span><span>x</span><span>)</span><span></span><span>−</span><span></span><span>f</span><span>(</span><span><span>x</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>0</span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span>)</span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span></span><span>,</span><span></span><span></span><span><span>f</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>+</span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span><span>′</span></span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span>(</span><span><span>x</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>0</span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span>)</span><span></span><span>=</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span>x</span><span>→</span><span><span>x</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>0</span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span>+</span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span>lim</span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span><span><span></span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>x</span><span></span><span>−</span><span></span><span><span>x</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>0</span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span><span></span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span>f</span><span>(</span><span>x</span><span>)</span><span></span><span>−</span><span></span><span>f</span><span>(</span><span><span>x</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>0</span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span>)</span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span></span><span>.</span></span></span></span></span><p><span><span>ff</span><span><span><span></span><span>f</span></span></span></span> 在 <span><span>x0x_0</span><span><span><span></span><span><span>x</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>0</span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span> 可导 <span><span>  ⟺  \iff</span><span><span><span></span><span></span><span>⟺</span><span></span></span></span></span> 左右导数都存在且相等。</p></section><section><h3>3. 可导与连续<a href="#3-可导与连续"><span>#</span></a></h3><span><span><span>可导⟹连续,连续⟹̸可导.\text{可导}\Longrightarrow\text{连续},\qquad\text{连续}\not\Longrightarrow\text{可导}.</span><span><span><span></span><span><span>可导</span></span><span></span><span>⟹</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span>连续</span></span><span>,</span><span></span><span></span><span><span>连续</span></span><span></span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span><span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span><span>⟹</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span>可导</span></span><span>.</span></span></span></span></span><p>反例：<span><span>f(x)=∣x∣f(x)=|x|</span><span><span><span></span><span>f</span><span>(</span><span>x</span><span>)</span><span></span><span>=</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>∣</span><span>x</span><span>∣</span></span></span></span> 在 <span><span>x=0x=0</span><span><span><span></span><span>x</span><span></span><span>=</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>0</span></span></span></span> 连续但不可导（左导数 <span><span>−1-1</span><span><span><span></span><span>−</span><span>1</span></span></span></span>，右导数 <span><span>11</span><span><span><span></span><span>1</span></span></span></span>，图像有尖点）。</p></section><section><h3>4. 微分<a href="#4-微分"><span>#</span></a></h3><p>若 <span><span>Δy=AΔx+o(Δx)\Delta y=A\Delta x+o(\Delta x)</span><span><span><span></span><span>Δ</span><span>y</span><span></span><span>=</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>A</span><span>Δ</span><span>x</span><span></span><span>+</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>o</span><span>(</span><span>Δ</span><span>x</span><span>)</span></span></span></span>，则称 <span><span>ff</span><span><span><span></span><span>f</span></span></span></span> 在 <span><span>x0x_0</span><span><span><span></span><span><span>x</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>0</span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span> <strong>可微</strong>，<span><span>dy=AΔx\mathrm dy=A\Delta x</span><span><span><span></span><span>d</span><span>y</span><span></span><span>=</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>A</span><span>Δ</span><span>x</span></span></span></span>。</p><p>对一元函数：<strong>可微 <span><span>  ⟺  \iff</span><span><span><span></span><span></span><span>⟺</span><span></span></span></span></span> 可导</strong>，且 <span><span>dy=f′(x0) dx\mathrm dy=f'(x_0)\,\mathrm dx</span><span><span><span></span><span>d</span><span>y</span><span></span><span>=</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span>f</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span>′</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span>(</span><span><span>x</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>0</span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span>)</span><span></span><span>d</span><span>x</span></span></span></span>。</p><p><strong>一阶微分形式不变性</strong>：无论 <span><span>uu</span><span><span><span></span><span>u</span></span></span></span> 是自变量还是中间变量，都有 <span><span>df(u)=f′(u) du\mathrm d f(u)=f'(u)\,\mathrm du</span><span><span><span></span><span>d</span><span>f</span><span>(</span><span>u</span><span>)</span><span></span><span>=</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span>f</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span>′</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span>(</span><span>u</span><span>)</span><span></span><span>d</span><span>u</span></span></span></span>。这在隐函数和后面的积分换元中很有用。</p></section></section>
<section><h2>三、必背公式<a href="#三必背公式"><span>#</span></a></h2><section><h3>1. 基本导数表<a href="#1-基本导数表"><span>#</span></a></h3><span><span><span>(xa)′=axa−1(ax)′=axln⁡a(log⁡ax)′=1xln⁡a(sin⁡x)′=cos⁡x(cos⁡x)′=−sin⁡x(tan⁡x)′=sec⁡2x(cot⁡x)′=−csc⁡2x(sec⁡x)′=sec⁡xtan⁡x(csc⁡x)′=−csc⁡xcot⁡x(arcsin⁡x)′=11−x2(arccos⁡x)′=−11−x2(arctan⁡x)′=11+x2(arccot⁡x)′=−11+x2[ln⁡(x+x2±1)]′=1x2±1(ln⁡∣x∣)′=1x\begin{aligned}
&amp;(x^a)'=ax^{a-1} &amp;&amp; (a^x)'=a^x\ln a &amp;&amp; (\log_a x)'=\frac{1}{x\ln a}\\
&amp;(\sin x)'=\cos x &amp;&amp; (\cos x)'=-\sin x &amp;&amp; (\tan x)'=\sec^2x\\
&amp;(\cot x)'=-\csc^2x &amp;&amp; (\sec x)'=\sec x\tan x &amp;&amp; (\csc x)'=-\csc x\cot x\\
&amp;(\arcsin x)'=\frac{1}{\sqrt{1-x^2}} &amp;&amp; (\arccos x)'=-\frac{1}{\sqrt{1-x^2}} &amp;&amp; (\arctan x)'=\frac{1}{1+x^2}\\
&amp;(\operatorname{arccot}x)'=-\frac{1}{1+x^2} &amp;&amp; \left[\ln\left(x+\sqrt{x^2\pm1}\right)\right]'=\frac{1}{\sqrt{x^2\pm1}} &amp;&amp; (\ln|x|)'=\frac1x
\end{aligned}</span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span></span><span>(</span><span><span>x</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>a</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span><span>)</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span>′</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span><span>=</span><span></span><span>a</span><span><span>x</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span>a</span><span>−</span><span>1</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span></span><span>(</span><span>sin</span><span></span><span>x</span><span><span>)</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span>′</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span><span>=</span><span></span><span>cos</span><span></span><span>x</span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span></span><span>(</span><span>cot</span><span></span><span>x</span><span><span>)</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span>′</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span><span>=</span><span></span><span>−</span><span></span><span><span>csc</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>2</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span><span>x</span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span></span><span>(</span><span>arcsin</span><span></span><span>x</span><span><span>)</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span>′</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span><span>=</span><span></span><span><span></span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>1</span><span></span><span>−</span><span></span><span><span>x</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>2</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span><span></span><span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span><span></span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span>1</span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span></span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span></span><span>(</span><span><span>arccot</span></span><span></span><span>x</span><span><span>)</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span>′</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span><span>=</span><span></span><span>−</span><span><span></span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>1</span><span></span><span>+</span><span></span><span><span>x</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>2</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span><span></span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span>1</span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span></span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span></span><span>(</span><span><span>a</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>x</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span><span>)</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span>′</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span><span>=</span><span></span><span><span>a</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>x</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span><span>ln</span><span></span><span>a</span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span></span><span>(</span><span>cos</span><span></span><span>x</span><span><span>)</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span>′</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span><span>=</span><span></span><span>−</span><span></span><span>sin</span><span></span><span>x</span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span></span><span>(</span><span>sec</span><span></span><span>x</span><span><span>)</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span>′</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span><span>=</span><span></span><span>sec</span><span></span><span>x</span><span></span><span>tan</span><span></span><span>x</span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span></span><span>(</span><span>arccos</span><span></span><span>x</span><span><span>)</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span>′</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span><span>=</span><span></span><span>−</span><span><span></span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>1</span><span></span><span>−</span><span></span><span><span>x</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>2</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span><span></span><span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span><span></span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span>1</span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span></span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span></span><span></span><span><span><span><span>[</span></span><span>ln</span><span></span><span><span><span>(</span></span><span>x</span><span></span><span>+</span><span></span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span>x</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>2</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span><span>±</span><span></span><span>1</span></span></span><span><span></span><span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span><span><span>)</span></span></span><span><span>]</span></span></span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span>′</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span><span>=</span><span></span><span><span></span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span>x</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>2</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span><span>±</span><span></span><span>1</span></span></span><span><span></span><span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span><span></span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span>1</span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span></span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span></span><span>(</span><span><span>lo<span>g</span></span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>a</span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span><span>x</span><span><span>)</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span>′</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span><span>=</span><span></span><span><span></span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>x</span><span></span><span>ln</span><span></span><span>a</span></span></span><span><span></span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span>1</span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span></span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span></span><span>(</span><span>tan</span><span></span><span>x</span><span><span>)</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span>′</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span><span>=</span><span></span><span><span>sec</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>2</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span><span>x</span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span></span><span>(</span><span>csc</span><span></span><span>x</span><span><span>)</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span>′</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span><span>=</span><span></span><span>−</span><span></span><span>csc</span><span></span><span>x</span><span></span><span>cot</span><span></span><span>x</span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span></span><span>(</span><span>arctan</span><span></span><span>x</span><span><span>)</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span>′</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span><span>=</span><span></span><span><span></span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>1</span><span></span><span>+</span><span></span><span><span>x</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>2</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span><span></span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span>1</span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span></span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span></span><span>(</span><span>ln</span><span></span><span>∣</span><span>x</span><span>∣</span><span><span>)</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span>′</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span><span>=</span><span></span><span><span></span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>x</span></span></span><span><span></span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span>1</span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span></span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></section><section><h3>2. 求导法则<a href="#2-求导法则"><span>#</span></a></h3><span><span><span>(uv)′=u′v+uv′,(uv)′=u′v−uv′v2,[f(g(x))]′=f′(g(x)) g′(x).(uv)'=u'v+uv',\qquad\left(\frac uv\right)'=\frac{u'v-uv'}{v^2},\qquad [f(g(x))]'=f'(g(x))\,g'(x).</span><span><span><span></span><span>(</span><span>uv</span><span><span>)</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span>′</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span><span>=</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span>u</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span>′</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span>v</span><span></span><span>+</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>u</span><span><span>v</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span>′</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span>,</span><span></span><span></span><span><span><span><span>(</span></span><span><span></span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>v</span></span></span><span><span></span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span>u</span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span></span><span><span>)</span></span></span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span>′</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span><span>=</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span></span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span>v</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>2</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span><span></span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span><span>u</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span>′</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span>v</span><span></span><span>−</span><span></span><span>u</span><span><span>v</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span>′</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span></span><span>,</span><span></span><span></span><span>[</span><span>f</span><span>(</span><span>g</span><span>(</span><span>x</span><span>))</span><span><span>]</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span>′</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span><span>=</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span>f</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span>′</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span>(</span><span>g</span><span>(</span><span>x</span><span>))</span><span></span><span><span>g</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span>′</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span>(</span><span>x</span><span>)</span><span>.</span></span></span></span></span></section><section><h3>3. 反函数、参数方程<a href="#3-反函数参数方程"><span>#</span></a></h3><div><div><div></div><div>必背</div></div><div><p>反函数：
<span><span>dxdy=1y′,d2xdy2=−y′′(y′)3\frac{\mathrm dx}{\mathrm dy}=\frac{1}{y'},\qquad \frac{\mathrm d^2x}{\mathrm dy^2}=-\frac{y''}{(y')^3}</span><span><span><span></span><span><span></span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span>d</span><span>y</span></span></span></span><span><span></span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span><span>d</span><span>x</span></span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span></span><span></span><span>=</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span></span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span><span>y</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span>′</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span><span></span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span><span>1</span></span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span></span><span>,</span><span></span><span></span><span><span></span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span>d</span><span><span>y</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>2</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span><span></span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span><span><span>d</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>2</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span>x</span></span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span></span><span></span><span>=</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>−</span><span><span></span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span>(</span><span><span>y</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span>′</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span><span>)</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>3</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span><span></span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span><span><span>y</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span>′′</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span></span></span></span></span>
参数方程 <span><span>x=x(t), y=y(t)x=x(t),\ y=y(t)</span><span><span><span></span><span>x</span><span></span><span>=</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>x</span><span>(</span><span>t</span><span>)</span><span>,</span><span> </span><span></span><span>y</span><span></span><span>=</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>y</span><span>(</span><span>t</span><span>)</span></span></span></span>：
<span><span>dydx=y′(t)x′(t),d2ydx2=ddt(dydx)x′(t)\frac{\mathrm dy}{\mathrm dx}=\frac{y'(t)}{x'(t)},\qquad \frac{\mathrm d^2y}{\mathrm dx^2}=\frac{\dfrac{\mathrm d}{\mathrm dt}\left(\dfrac{\mathrm dy}{\mathrm dx}\right)}{x'(t)}</span><span><span><span></span><span><span></span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span>d</span><span>x</span></span></span></span><span><span></span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span><span>d</span><span>y</span></span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span></span><span></span><span>=</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span></span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span><span>x</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span>′</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span>(</span><span>t</span><span>)</span></span></span></span><span><span></span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span><span><span>y</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span>′</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span>(</span><span>t</span><span>)</span></span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span></span><span>,</span><span></span><span></span><span><span></span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span>d</span><span><span>x</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>2</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span><span></span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span><span><span>d</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>2</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span>y</span></span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span></span><span></span><span>=</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span></span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span><span>x</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span>′</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span>(</span><span>t</span><span>)</span></span></span></span><span><span></span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>d</span><span>t</span></span></span><span><span></span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span>d</span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span></span><span><span><span><span>(</span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>d</span><span>x</span></span></span><span><span></span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span>d</span><span>y</span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span></span><span><span><span>)</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span></span></span></span></span></p></div></div></section><section><h3>4. 常见 n 阶导数<a href="#4-常见-n-阶导数"><span>#</span></a></h3><span><span><span>(eax)(n)=aneax(sin⁡x)(n)=sin⁡(x+nπ2)(cos⁡x)(n)=cos⁡(x+nπ2)(1x+a)(n)=(−1)nn!(x+a)n+1[ln⁡(1+x)](n)=(−1)n−1(n−1)!(1+x)n(xm)(n)=0(n&gt;m)\begin{aligned}
&amp;(e^{ax})^{(n)}=a^ne^{ax} &amp;&amp; (\sin x)^{(n)}=\sin\left(x+\frac{n\pi}{2}\right)\\
&amp;(\cos x)^{(n)}=\cos\left(x+\frac{n\pi}{2}\right) &amp;&amp; \left(\frac{1}{x+a}\right)^{(n)}=\frac{(-1)^nn!}{(x+a)^{n+1}}\\
&amp;\left[\ln(1+x)\right]^{(n)}=\frac{(-1)^{n-1}(n-1)!}{(1+x)^n} &amp;&amp; (x^m)^{(n)}=0\quad(n&gt;m)
\end{aligned}</span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span></span><span>(</span><span><span>e</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span>a</span><span>x</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span><span>)</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span>(</span><span>n</span><span>)</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span><span>=</span><span></span><span><span>a</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>n</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span><span>e</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span>a</span><span>x</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span></span><span>(</span><span>cos</span><span></span><span>x</span><span><span>)</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span>(</span><span>n</span><span>)</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span><span>=</span><span></span><span>cos</span><span></span><span><span><span>(</span></span><span>x</span><span></span><span>+</span><span></span><span><span></span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>2</span></span></span><span><span></span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span>nπ</span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span></span><span><span>)</span></span></span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span></span><span></span><span><span><span>[</span><span>ln</span><span>(</span><span>1</span><span></span><span>+</span><span></span><span>x</span><span>)</span><span>]</span></span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span>(</span><span>n</span><span>)</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span><span>=</span><span></span><span><span></span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>(</span><span>1</span><span></span><span>+</span><span></span><span>x</span><span><span>)</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>n</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span><span></span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span>(</span><span>−</span><span>1</span><span><span>)</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span>n</span><span>−</span><span>1</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span>(</span><span>n</span><span></span><span>−</span><span></span><span>1</span><span>)!</span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span></span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span></span><span>(</span><span>sin</span><span></span><span>x</span><span><span>)</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span>(</span><span>n</span><span>)</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span><span>=</span><span></span><span>sin</span><span></span><span><span><span>(</span></span><span>x</span><span></span><span>+</span><span></span><span><span></span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>2</span></span></span><span><span></span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span>nπ</span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span></span><span><span>)</span></span></span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span></span><span></span><span><span><span><span>(</span></span><span><span></span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>x</span><span></span><span>+</span><span></span><span>a</span></span></span><span><span></span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span>1</span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span></span><span><span>)</span></span></span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span>(</span><span>n</span><span>)</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span><span>=</span><span></span><span><span></span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>(</span><span>x</span><span></span><span>+</span><span></span><span>a</span><span><span>)</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span>n</span><span>+</span><span>1</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span><span></span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span>(</span><span>−</span><span>1</span><span><span>)</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>n</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span>n</span><span>!</span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span></span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span></span><span>(</span><span><span>x</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>m</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span><span>)</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span>(</span><span>n</span><span>)</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span><span>=</span><span></span><span>0</span><span></span><span>(</span><span>n</span><span></span><span>&gt;</span><span></span><span>m</span><span>)</span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></section><section><h3>5. 莱布尼茨公式<a href="#5-莱布尼茨公式"><span>#</span></a></h3><span><span><span>(uv)(n)=∑k=0n(nk)u(k)v(n−k).(uv)^{(n)}=\sum_{k=0}^{n}\binom nk u^{(k)}v^{(n-k)}.</span><span><span><span></span><span>(</span><span>uv</span><span><span>)</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span>(</span><span>n</span><span>)</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span><span>=</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span>k</span><span>=</span><span>0</span></span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span>∑</span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span><span>n</span></span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span><span><span><span>(</span></span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>k</span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span>n</span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span><span><span>)</span></span></span><span><span>u</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span>(</span><span>k</span><span>)</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span><span>v</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span>(</span><span>n</span><span>−</span><span>k</span><span>)</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span>.</span></span></span></span></span><p>形式和二项式定理一样。适用于<strong>一个因子是多项式</strong>的情况，因为多项式求几次导就变成 <span><span>00</span><span><span><span></span><span>0</span></span></span></span>，求和只剩几项。</p></section><section><h3>6. 切线与法线<a href="#6-切线与法线"><span>#</span></a></h3><p>曲线 <span><span>y=f(x)y=f(x)</span><span><span><span></span><span>y</span><span></span><span>=</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>f</span><span>(</span><span>x</span><span>)</span></span></span></span> 在 <span><span>(x0,y0)(x_0,y_0)</span><span><span><span></span><span>(</span><span><span>x</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>0</span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span>,</span><span></span><span><span>y</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>0</span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span>)</span></span></span></span> 处：</p><span><span><span>切线：y−y0=f′(x0)(x−x0),法线：y−y0=−1f′(x0)(x−x0).\text{切线：}y-y_0=f'(x_0)(x-x_0),\qquad\text{法线：}y-y_0=-\frac{1}{f'(x_0)}(x-x_0).</span><span><span><span></span><span><span>切线：</span></span><span>y</span><span></span><span>−</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span>y</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>0</span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span><span>=</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span>f</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span>′</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span>(</span><span><span>x</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>0</span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span>)</span><span>(</span><span>x</span><span></span><span>−</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span>x</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>0</span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span>)</span><span>,</span><span></span><span></span><span><span>法线：</span></span><span>y</span><span></span><span>−</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span>y</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>0</span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span><span>=</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>−</span><span><span></span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span>f</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span>′</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span>(</span><span><span>x</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>0</span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span>)</span></span></span><span><span></span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span>1</span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span></span><span>(</span><span>x</span><span></span><span>−</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span>x</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>0</span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span>)</span><span>.</span></span></span></span></span></section></section>
<section><h2>四、题型与解题套路<a href="#四题型与解题套路"><span>#</span></a></h2><section><h3>题型 1：已知极限，求导数<a href="#题型-1已知极限求导数"><span>#</span></a></h3><p><strong>识别特征</strong>：题目给出含 <span><span>ff</span><span><span><span></span><span>f</span></span></span></span> 的极限，问 <span><span>f′(x0)f'(x_0)</span><span><span><span></span><span><span>f</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span>′</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span>(</span><span><span>x</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>0</span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span>)</span></span></span></span>。</p><p><strong>解法</strong>：把所给极限<strong>凑成导数定义的形式</strong>。常用两个技巧：</p><ul>
<li>先由“分母趋于 <span><span>00</span><span><span><span></span><span>0</span></span></span></span>、极限存在”推出 <span><span>f(x0)f(x_0)</span><span><span><span></span><span>f</span><span>(</span><span><span>x</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>0</span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span>)</span></span></span></span> 的值；</li>
<li>分子加一项减一项 <span><span>f(x0)f(x_0)</span><span><span><span></span><span>f</span><span>(</span><span><span>x</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>0</span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span>)</span></span></span></span>，拆成两个定义式。</li>
</ul><p><strong>例 1</strong> 设 <span><span>f(x)f(x)</span><span><span><span></span><span>f</span><span>(</span><span>x</span><span>)</span></span></span></span> 在 <span><span>x=0x=0</span><span><span><span></span><span>x</span><span></span><span>=</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>0</span></span></span></span> 处连续，且 <span><span>lim⁡x→0f(x)x=2\displaystyle\lim_{x\to0}\frac{f(x)}{x}=2</span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span>x</span><span>→</span><span>0</span></span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span>lim</span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span><span><span></span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>x</span></span></span><span><span></span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span>f</span><span>(</span><span>x</span><span>)</span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span></span><span></span><span>=</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>2</span></span></span></span>，求 <span><span>f(0)f(0)</span><span><span><span></span><span>f</span><span>(</span><span>0</span><span>)</span></span></span></span> 和 <span><span>f′(0)f'(0)</span><span><span><span></span><span><span>f</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span>′</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span>(</span><span>0</span><span>)</span></span></span></span>。</p><p><strong>解</strong> 分母 <span><span>→0\to0</span><span><span><span></span><span>→</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>0</span></span></span></span>，极限存在，所以 <span><span>lim⁡x→0f(x)=0\lim\limits_{x\to0}f(x)=0</span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span>x</span><span>→</span><span>0</span></span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span>lim</span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span><span>f</span><span>(</span><span>x</span><span>)</span><span></span><span>=</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>0</span></span></span></span>；又 <span><span>ff</span><span><span><span></span><span>f</span></span></span></span> 连续，得 <span><span>f(0)=0f(0)=0</span><span><span><span></span><span>f</span><span>(</span><span>0</span><span>)</span><span></span><span>=</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>0</span></span></span></span>。于是</p><span><span><span>f′(0)=lim⁡x→0f(x)−f(0)x=lim⁡x→0f(x)x=2.f'(0)=\lim_{x\to0}\frac{f(x)-f(0)}{x}=\lim_{x\to0}\frac{f(x)}{x}=\boxed2.</span><span><span><span></span><span><span>f</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span>′</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span>(</span><span>0</span><span>)</span><span></span><span>=</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span>x</span><span>→</span><span>0</span></span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span>lim</span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span><span><span></span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>x</span></span></span><span><span></span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span>f</span><span>(</span><span>x</span><span>)</span><span></span><span>−</span><span></span><span>f</span><span>(</span><span>0</span><span>)</span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span></span><span></span><span>=</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span>x</span><span>→</span><span>0</span></span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span>lim</span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span><span><span></span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>x</span></span></span><span><span></span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span>f</span><span>(</span><span>x</span><span>)</span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span></span><span></span><span>=</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span><span>2</span></span></span></span></span><span><span></span><span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span><span>.</span></span></span></span></span><p><strong>例 2</strong> 设 <span><span>f′(x0)f'(x_0)</span><span><span><span></span><span><span>f</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span>′</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span>(</span><span><span>x</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>0</span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span>)</span></span></span></span> 存在，求 <span><span>lim⁡h→0f(x0+2h)−f(x0−h)h\displaystyle\lim_{h\to0}\frac{f(x_0+2h)-f(x_0-h)}{h}</span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span>h</span><span>→</span><span>0</span></span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span>lim</span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span><span><span></span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>h</span></span></span><span><span></span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span>f</span><span>(</span><span><span>x</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>0</span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span><span>+</span><span></span><span>2</span><span>h</span><span>)</span><span></span><span>−</span><span></span><span>f</span><span>(</span><span><span>x</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>0</span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span><span>−</span><span></span><span>h</span><span>)</span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span></span></span></span></span>。</p><p><strong>解</strong> 加一项减一项 <span><span>f(x0)f(x_0)</span><span><span><span></span><span>f</span><span>(</span><span><span>x</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>0</span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span>)</span></span></span></span>：</p><span><span><span>f(x0+2h)−f(x0)h−f(x0−h)−f(x0)h=2⋅f(x0+2h)−f(x0)2h+f(x0−h)−f(x0)−h→2f′(x0)+f′(x0)=3f′(x0).\frac{f(x_0+2h)-f(x_0)}{h}-\frac{f(x_0-h)-f(x_0)}{h}=2\cdot\frac{f(x_0+2h)-f(x_0)}{2h}+\frac{f(x_0-h)-f(x_0)}{-h}\to2f'(x_0)+f'(x_0)=\boxed{3f'(x_0)}.</span><span><span><span></span><span><span></span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>h</span></span></span><span><span></span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span>f</span><span>(</span><span><span>x</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>0</span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span><span>+</span><span></span><span>2</span><span>h</span><span>)</span><span></span><span>−</span><span></span><span>f</span><span>(</span><span><span>x</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>0</span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span>)</span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span></span><span></span><span>−</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span></span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>h</span></span></span><span><span></span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span>f</span><span>(</span><span><span>x</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>0</span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span><span>−</span><span></span><span>h</span><span>)</span><span></span><span>−</span><span></span><span>f</span><span>(</span><span><span>x</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>0</span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span>)</span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span></span><span></span><span>=</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>2</span><span></span><span>⋅</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span></span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>2</span><span>h</span></span></span><span><span></span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span>f</span><span>(</span><span><span>x</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>0</span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span><span>+</span><span></span><span>2</span><span>h</span><span>)</span><span></span><span>−</span><span></span><span>f</span><span>(</span><span><span>x</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>0</span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span>)</span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span></span><span></span><span>+</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span></span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>−</span><span>h</span></span></span><span><span></span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span>f</span><span>(</span><span><span>x</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>0</span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span><span>−</span><span></span><span>h</span><span>)</span><span></span><span>−</span><span></span><span>f</span><span>(</span><span><span>x</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>0</span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span>)</span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span></span><span></span><span>→</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>2</span><span><span>f</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span>′</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span>(</span><span><span>x</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>0</span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span>)</span><span></span><span>+</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span>f</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span>′</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span>(</span><span><span>x</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>0</span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span>)</span><span></span><span>=</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span><span>3</span><span><span>f</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span>′</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span>(</span><span><span>x</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>0</span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span>)</span></span></span></span></span><span><span></span><span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span><span>.</span></span></span></span></span><div><div><div></div><div>这种拆法的前提</div></div><div><p>只有<strong>已知 <span><span>f′(x0)f'(x_0)</span><span><span><span></span><span><span>f</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span>′</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span>(</span><span><span>x</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>0</span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span>)</span></span></span></span> 存在</strong>时才能这样拆。反过来，由这种“两端都动”的极限存在，<strong>推不出</strong> <span><span>f′(x0)f'(x_0)</span><span><span><span></span><span><span>f</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span>′</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span>(</span><span><span>x</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>0</span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span>)</span></span></span></span> 存在，见题型 2。</p></div></div></section><section><h3>题型 2：判断可导（选择题陷阱）<a href="#题型-2判断可导选择题陷阱"><span>#</span></a></h3><p><strong>解法</strong>：对照“一端固定、另一端从两侧动、分母一致”三条逐一检查。</p><p><strong>例 3</strong> 设 <span><span>f(0)=0f(0)=0</span><span><span><span></span><span>f</span><span>(</span><span>0</span><span>)</span><span></span><span>=</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>0</span></span></span></span>，下列哪个条件能推出 <span><span>f(x)f(x)</span><span><span><span></span><span>f</span><span>(</span><span>x</span><span>)</span></span></span></span> 在 <span><span>x=0x=0</span><span><span><span></span><span>x</span><span></span><span>=</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>0</span></span></span></span> 处可导？</p><ul>
<li>(A) <span><span>lim⁡h→0f(h)−f(−h)2h\displaystyle\lim_{h\to0}\frac{f(h)-f(-h)}{2h}</span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span>h</span><span>→</span><span>0</span></span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span>lim</span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span><span><span></span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>2</span><span>h</span></span></span><span><span></span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span>f</span><span>(</span><span>h</span><span>)</span><span></span><span>−</span><span></span><span>f</span><span>(</span><span>−</span><span>h</span><span>)</span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span></span></span></span></span> 存在</li>
<li>(B) <span><span>lim⁡h→0f(1−cos⁡h)h2\displaystyle\lim_{h\to0}\frac{f(1-\cos h)}{h^2}</span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span>h</span><span>→</span><span>0</span></span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span>lim</span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span><span><span></span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span>h</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>2</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span><span></span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span>f</span><span>(</span><span>1</span><span></span><span>−</span><span></span><span>cos</span><span></span><span>h</span><span>)</span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span></span></span></span></span> 存在</li>
<li>(C) <span><span>lim⁡h→0f(h3)h3\displaystyle\lim_{h\to0}\frac{f(h^3)}{h^3}</span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span>h</span><span>→</span><span>0</span></span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span>lim</span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span><span><span></span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span>h</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>3</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span><span></span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span>f</span><span>(</span><span><span>h</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>3</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span>)</span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span></span></span></span></span> 存在</li>
<li>(D) <span><span>lim⁡h→0f(2h)−f(h)h\displaystyle\lim_{h\to0}\frac{f(2h)-f(h)}{h}</span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span>h</span><span>→</span><span>0</span></span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span>lim</span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span><span><span></span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>h</span></span></span><span><span></span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span>f</span><span>(</span><span>2</span><span>h</span><span>)</span><span></span><span>−</span><span></span><span>f</span><span>(</span><span>h</span><span>)</span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span></span></span></span></span> 存在</li>
</ul><p><strong>解</strong></p><ul>
<li>(A) 两端都动，没有固定的 <span><span>f(0)f(0)</span><span><span><span></span><span>f</span><span>(</span><span>0</span><span>)</span></span></span></span>。反例：<span><span>f(x)=∣x∣f(x)=|x|</span><span><span><span></span><span>f</span><span>(</span><span>x</span><span>)</span><span></span><span>=</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>∣</span><span>x</span><span>∣</span></span></span></span>，分子恒为 <span><span>00</span><span><span><span></span><span>0</span></span></span></span>，极限存在，但 <span><span>ff</span><span><span><span></span><span>f</span></span></span></span> 在 <span><span>00</span><span><span><span></span><span>0</span></span></span></span> 处不可导。</li>
<li>(B) <span><span>1−cos⁡h≥01-\cos h\ge0</span><span><span><span></span><span>1</span><span></span><span>−</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>cos</span><span></span><span>h</span><span></span><span>≥</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>0</span></span></span></span>，动点<strong>只从右侧</strong>趋于 <span><span>00</span><span><span><span></span><span>0</span></span></span></span>，只能推出右导数 <span><span>f+′(0)f'_+(0)</span><span><span><span></span><span><span>f</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>+</span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span><span>′</span></span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span>(</span><span>0</span><span>)</span></span></span></span> 存在。反例同样是 <span><span>∣x∣|x|</span><span><span><span></span><span>∣</span><span>x</span><span>∣</span></span></span></span>。</li>
<li>(C) <span><span>t=h3t=h^3</span><span><span><span></span><span>t</span><span></span><span>=</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span>h</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>3</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span> 能从两侧趋于 <span><span>00</span><span><span><span></span><span>0</span></span></span></span>，<span><span>f(h3)h3=f(t)−f(0)t\dfrac{f(h^3)}{h^3}=\dfrac{f(t)-f(0)}{t}</span><span><span><span></span><span><span></span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span>h</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>3</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span><span></span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span>f</span><span>(</span><span><span>h</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>3</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span>)</span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span></span><span></span><span>=</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span></span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>t</span></span></span><span><span></span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span>f</span><span>(</span><span>t</span><span>)</span><span></span><span>−</span><span></span><span>f</span><span>(</span><span>0</span><span>)</span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span></span></span></span></span>，正好是定义式。<strong>能推出</strong>。</li>
<li>(D) 两端都动。反例：<span><span>f(0)=0f(0)=0</span><span><span><span></span><span>f</span><span>(</span><span>0</span><span>)</span><span></span><span>=</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>0</span></span></span></span>，<span><span>x≠0x\ne0</span><span><span><span></span><span>x</span><span></span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span><span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span><span>=</span></span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>0</span></span></span></span> 时 <span><span>f(x)=1f(x)=1</span><span><span><span></span><span>f</span><span>(</span><span>x</span><span>)</span><span></span><span>=</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>1</span></span></span></span>。分子 <span><span>f(2h)−f(h)f(2h)-f(h)</span><span><span><span></span><span>f</span><span>(</span><span>2</span><span>h</span><span>)</span><span></span><span>−</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>f</span><span>(</span><span>h</span><span>)</span></span></span></span> 恒为 <span><span>00</span><span><span><span></span><span>0</span></span></span></span>，极限存在，但 <span><span>ff</span><span><span><span></span><span>f</span></span></span></span> 在 <span><span>00</span><span><span><span></span><span>0</span></span></span></span> 处不连续，更不可导。</li>
</ul><p>答案为 <span><span>C\boxed{\text{C}}</span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span><span><span>C</span></span></span></span></span></span><span><span></span><span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span>。</p><div><div><div></div><div>速判口诀</div></div><div><p>平方、<span><span>1−cos⁡1-\cos</span><span><span><span></span><span>1</span><span></span><span>−</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>cos</span></span></span></span>、<span><span>eh−1e^h-1</span><span><span><span></span><span><span>e</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>h</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span><span>−</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>1</span></span></span></span> 中的 <span><span>h2h^2</span><span><span><span></span><span><span>h</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>2</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span> 这类<strong>恒非负</strong>的增量，只能得到单侧导数；奇次幂 <span><span>h3h^3</span><span><span><span></span><span><span>h</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>3</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span>、<span><span>sin⁡h\sin h</span><span><span><span></span><span>sin</span><span></span><span>h</span></span></span></span>、<span><span>tan⁡h\tan h</span><span><span><span></span><span>tan</span><span></span><span>h</span></span></span></span> 这类<strong>能取正负</strong>的增量没问题。</p></div></div></section><section><h3>题型 3：分段函数与绝对值函数的可导性<a href="#题型-3分段函数与绝对值函数的可导性"><span>#</span></a></h3><p><strong>解法</strong>：</p><ul>
<li><strong>分段点</strong>：必须用定义分别求左右导数，不能直接对两段公式求导后代入（除非已知导函数在该点的极限存在）。</li>
<li><strong>含参数</strong>：先由<strong>连续</strong>列一个方程，再由<strong>左右导数相等</strong>列一个方程。</li>
<li><strong>绝对值</strong>：用下面这个结论。</li>
</ul><div><div><div></div><div>必背结论</div></div><div><p>设 <span><span>φ(x)\varphi(x)</span><span><span><span></span><span>φ</span><span>(</span><span>x</span><span>)</span></span></span></span> 在 <span><span>x=ax=a</span><span><span><span></span><span>x</span><span></span><span>=</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>a</span></span></span></span> 处连续，则 <span><span>φ(x) ∣x−a∣\varphi(x)\,|x-a|</span><span><span><span></span><span>φ</span><span>(</span><span>x</span><span>)</span><span></span><span>∣</span><span>x</span><span></span><span>−</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>a</span><span>∣</span></span></span></span> 在 <span><span>x=ax=a</span><span><span><span></span><span>x</span><span></span><span>=</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>a</span></span></span></span> 处可导 <span><span>  ⟺  φ(a)=0\iff\varphi(a)=0</span><span><span><span></span><span></span><span>⟺</span><span></span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>φ</span><span>(</span><span>a</span><span>)</span><span></span><span>=</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>0</span></span></span></span>。</p></div></div><p><strong>例 4</strong> 设 <span><span>f(x)={ex,x≤0ax+b,x&gt;0f(x)=\begin{cases}e^x,&amp;x\le0\\ax+b,&amp;x&gt;0\end{cases}</span><span><span><span></span><span>f</span><span>(</span><span>x</span><span>)</span><span></span><span>=</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span><span>{</span></span><span><span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span>e</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>x</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span>,</span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span>a</span><span>x</span><span></span><span>+</span><span></span><span>b</span><span>,</span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>x</span><span></span><span>≤</span><span></span><span>0</span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span>x</span><span></span><span>&gt;</span><span></span><span>0</span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span></span></span></span></span> 在 <span><span>x=0x=0</span><span><span><span></span><span>x</span><span></span><span>=</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>0</span></span></span></span> 处可导，求 <span><span>a,ba,b</span><span><span><span></span><span>a</span><span>,</span><span></span><span>b</span></span></span></span>。</p><p><strong>解</strong></p><ul>
<li>连续：<span><span>f(0+)=bf(0^+)=b</span><span><span><span></span><span>f</span><span>(</span><span><span>0</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>+</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span>)</span><span></span><span>=</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>b</span></span></span></span>，<span><span>f(0)=e0=1f(0)=e^0=1</span><span><span><span></span><span>f</span><span>(</span><span>0</span><span>)</span><span></span><span>=</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span>e</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>0</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span><span>=</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>1</span></span></span></span>，所以 <span><span>b=1b=1</span><span><span><span></span><span>b</span><span></span><span>=</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>1</span></span></span></span>。</li>
<li>可导：<span><span>f−′(0)=(ex)′∣x=0=1f'_-(0)=(e^x)'\big|_{x=0}=1</span><span><span><span></span><span><span>f</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>−</span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span><span>′</span></span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span>(</span><span>0</span><span>)</span><span></span><span>=</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>(</span><span><span>e</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>x</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span><span>)</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span>′</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span><span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span>x</span><span>=</span><span>0</span></span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span><span>=</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>1</span></span></span></span>，<span><span>f+′(0)=lim⁡x→0+ax+1−1x=af'_+(0)=\lim\limits_{x\to0^+}\dfrac{ax+1-1}{x}=a</span><span><span><span></span><span><span>f</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>+</span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span><span>′</span></span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span>(</span><span>0</span><span>)</span><span></span><span>=</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span>x</span><span>→</span><span><span>0</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>+</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span>lim</span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span><span><span></span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>x</span></span></span><span><span></span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span>a</span><span>x</span><span></span><span>+</span><span></span><span>1</span><span></span><span>−</span><span></span><span>1</span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span></span><span></span><span>=</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>a</span></span></span></span>，所以 <span><span>a=1a=1</span><span><span><span></span><span>a</span><span></span><span>=</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>1</span></span></span></span>。</li>
</ul><p>答案：<span><span>a=1, b=1\boxed{a=1,\ b=1}</span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span><span>a</span><span></span><span>=</span><span></span><span>1</span><span>,</span><span> </span><span></span><span>b</span><span></span><span>=</span><span></span><span>1</span></span></span></span></span><span><span></span><span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span>。</p><p><strong>例 5</strong> 求 <span><span>f(x)=(x2−x−2) ∣x3−x∣f(x)=(x^2-x-2)\,|x^3-x|</span><span><span><span></span><span>f</span><span>(</span><span>x</span><span>)</span><span></span><span>=</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>(</span><span><span>x</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>2</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span><span>−</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>x</span><span></span><span>−</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>2</span><span>)</span><span></span><span>∣</span><span><span>x</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>3</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span><span>−</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>x</span><span>∣</span></span></span></span> 的不可导点个数。</p><p><strong>解</strong> <span><span>∣x3−x∣=∣x∣ ∣x−1∣ ∣x+1∣|x^3-x|=|x|\,|x-1|\,|x+1|</span><span><span><span></span><span>∣</span><span><span>x</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>3</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span><span>−</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>x</span><span>∣</span><span></span><span>=</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>∣</span><span>x</span><span>∣</span><span></span><span>∣</span><span>x</span><span></span><span>−</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>1∣</span><span></span><span>∣</span><span>x</span><span></span><span>+</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>1∣</span></span></span></span>，可疑点为 <span><span>x=0,1,−1x=0,1,-1</span><span><span><span></span><span>x</span><span></span><span>=</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>0</span><span>,</span><span></span><span>1</span><span>,</span><span></span><span>−</span><span>1</span></span></span></span>。对每个点，把其余因子看成 <span><span>φ(x)\varphi(x)</span><span><span><span></span><span>φ</span><span>(</span><span>x</span><span>)</span></span></span></span>：</p>

<table><thead><tr><th>点</th><th><span><span>φ(x)\varphi(x)</span><span><span><span></span><span>φ</span><span>(</span><span>x</span><span>)</span></span></span></span></th><th><span><span>φ\varphi</span><span><span><span></span><span>φ</span></span></span></span> 在该点的值</th><th>结论</th></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td><span><span>x=0x=0</span><span><span><span></span><span>x</span><span></span><span>=</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>0</span></span></span></span></td><td><span><span>(x2−x−2) ∣x−1∣ ∣x+1∣(x^2-x-2)\,\lvert x-1\rvert\,\lvert x+1\rvert</span><span><span><span></span><span>(</span><span><span>x</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>2</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span><span>−</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>x</span><span></span><span>−</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>2</span><span>)</span><span></span><span>∣</span><span>x</span><span></span><span>−</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>1</span><span>∣</span><span></span><span>∣</span><span>x</span><span></span><span>+</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>1</span><span>∣</span></span></span></span></td><td><span><span>−2≠0-2\ne0</span><span><span><span></span><span>−</span><span>2</span><span></span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span><span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span><span>=</span></span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>0</span></span></span></span></td><td>不可导</td></tr><tr><td><span><span>x=1x=1</span><span><span><span></span><span>x</span><span></span><span>=</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>1</span></span></span></span></td><td><span><span>(x2−x−2) ∣x∣ ∣x+1∣(x^2-x-2)\,\lvert x\rvert\,\lvert x+1\rvert</span><span><span><span></span><span>(</span><span><span>x</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>2</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span><span>−</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>x</span><span></span><span>−</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>2</span><span>)</span><span></span><span>∣</span><span>x</span><span>∣</span><span></span><span>∣</span><span>x</span><span></span><span>+</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>1</span><span>∣</span></span></span></span></td><td><span><span>−4≠0-4\ne0</span><span><span><span></span><span>−</span><span>4</span><span></span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span><span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span><span>=</span></span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>0</span></span></span></span></td><td>不可导</td></tr><tr><td><span><span>x=−1x=-1</span><span><span><span></span><span>x</span><span></span><span>=</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>−</span><span>1</span></span></span></span></td><td><span><span>(x2−x−2) ∣x∣ ∣x−1∣(x^2-x-2)\,\lvert x\rvert\,\lvert x-1\rvert</span><span><span><span></span><span>(</span><span><span>x</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>2</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span><span>−</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>x</span><span></span><span>−</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>2</span><span>)</span><span></span><span>∣</span><span>x</span><span>∣</span><span></span><span>∣</span><span>x</span><span></span><span>−</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>1</span><span>∣</span></span></span></span></td><td><span><span>00</span><span><span><span></span><span>0</span></span></span></span></td><td>可导</td></tr></tbody></table><p>不可导点共 <span><span>2\boxed{2}</span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span><span>2</span></span></span></span></span><span><span></span><span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span> 个。</p></section><section><h3>题型 4：复合函数与对数求导法<a href="#题型-4复合函数与对数求导法"><span>#</span></a></h3><p><strong>解法</strong>：</p><ul>
<li>复合函数：<strong>从外往里</strong>一层层求导，每层乘上里一层的导数。</li>
<li><strong>幂指函数</strong> <span><span>uvu^v</span><span><span><span></span><span><span>u</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>v</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span>、<strong>多个因子连乘除、带根号</strong>：先取对数再求导。</li>
</ul><p><strong>例 6</strong> 求 <span><span>y=xsin⁡x (x&gt;0)y=x^{\sin x}\ (x&gt;0)</span><span><span><span></span><span>y</span><span></span><span>=</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span>x</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span><span>s</span><span>i</span><span>n</span></span><span></span><span>x</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span> </span><span>(</span><span>x</span><span></span><span>&gt;</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>0</span><span>)</span></span></span></span> 的导数。</p><p><strong>解</strong> 取对数：<span><span>ln⁡y=sin⁡xln⁡x\ln y=\sin x\ln x</span><span><span><span></span><span>ln</span><span></span><span>y</span><span></span><span>=</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>sin</span><span></span><span>x</span><span></span><span>ln</span><span></span><span>x</span></span></span></span>。两边对 <span><span>xx</span><span><span><span></span><span>x</span></span></span></span> 求导：</p><span><span><span>y′y=cos⁡xln⁡x+sin⁡xx ⟹ y′=xsin⁡x(cos⁡xln⁡x+sin⁡xx).\frac{y'}{y}=\cos x\ln x+\frac{\sin x}{x}\ \Longrightarrow\ y'=x^{\sin x}\left(\cos x\ln x+\frac{\sin x}{x}\right).</span><span><span><span></span><span><span></span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>y</span></span></span><span><span></span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span><span>y</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span>′</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span></span><span></span><span>=</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>cos</span><span></span><span>x</span><span></span><span>ln</span><span></span><span>x</span><span></span><span>+</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span></span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>x</span></span></span><span><span></span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span>sin</span><span></span><span>x</span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span></span><span> </span><span></span><span>⟹</span><span> </span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span>y</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span>′</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span><span>=</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span>x</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span><span>s</span><span>i</span><span>n</span></span><span></span><span>x</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span><span><span><span>(</span></span><span>cos</span><span></span><span>x</span><span></span><span>ln</span><span></span><span>x</span><span></span><span>+</span><span></span><span><span></span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>x</span></span></span><span><span></span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span>sin</span><span></span><span>x</span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span></span><span><span>)</span></span></span><span></span><span>.</span></span></span></span></span><p>也可以直接写成 <span><span>y=esin⁡xln⁡xy=e^{\sin x\ln x}</span><span><span><span></span><span>y</span><span></span><span>=</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span>e</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span><span>s</span><span>i</span><span>n</span></span><span></span><span>x</span><span></span><span><span>l</span><span>n</span></span><span></span><span>x</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span> 再按复合函数求导，结果一样。</p></section><section><h3>题型 5：隐函数求导<a href="#题型-5隐函数求导"><span>#</span></a></h3><p><strong>解法步骤</strong>：</p><ol>
<li>方程两边同时对 <span><span>xx</span><span><span><span></span><span>x</span></span></span></span> 求导，<strong>把 <span><span>yy</span><span><span><span></span><span>y</span></span></span></span> 看成 <span><span>xx</span><span><span><span></span><span>x</span></span></span></span> 的函数</strong>，遇到 <span><span>yy</span><span><span><span></span><span>y</span></span></span></span> 的函数要乘 <span><span>y′y'</span><span><span><span></span><span><span>y</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span>′</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span>；</li>
<li>解出 <span><span>y′y'</span><span><span><span></span><span><span>y</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span>′</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span>；</li>
<li>求二阶导时，对第 1 步的式子<strong>再求一次导</strong>，然后代入已知的 <span><span>x,y,y′x,y,y'</span><span><span><span></span><span>x</span><span>,</span><span></span><span>y</span><span>,</span><span></span><span><span>y</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span>′</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span> 的值，比先解出 <span><span>y′y'</span><span><span><span></span><span><span>y</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span>′</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span> 再求导更省事。</li>
</ol><p><strong>例 7</strong> 设 <span><span>y=y(x)y=y(x)</span><span><span><span></span><span>y</span><span></span><span>=</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>y</span><span>(</span><span>x</span><span>)</span></span></span></span> 由 <span><span>ey+xy=ee^y+xy=e</span><span><span><span></span><span><span>e</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>y</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span><span>+</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>x</span><span>y</span><span></span><span>=</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>e</span></span></span></span> 确定，求 <span><span>y′(0)y'(0)</span><span><span><span></span><span><span>y</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span>′</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span>(</span><span>0</span><span>)</span></span></span></span> 和 <span><span>y′′(0)y''(0)</span><span><span><span></span><span><span>y</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span>′′</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span>(</span><span>0</span><span>)</span></span></span></span>。</p><p><strong>解</strong> 先求点：<span><span>x=0x=0</span><span><span><span></span><span>x</span><span></span><span>=</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>0</span></span></span></span> 时 <span><span>ey=ee^y=e</span><span><span><span></span><span><span>e</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>y</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span><span>=</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>e</span></span></span></span>，得 <span><span>y(0)=1y(0)=1</span><span><span><span></span><span>y</span><span>(</span><span>0</span><span>)</span><span></span><span>=</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>1</span></span></span></span>。</p><p>两边对 <span><span>xx</span><span><span><span></span><span>x</span></span></span></span> 求导：</p><span><span><span>eyy′+y+xy′=0.(1)e^yy'+y+xy'=0. \tag{1}</span><span><span><span></span><span><span>e</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>y</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span><span>y</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span>′</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span><span>+</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>y</span><span></span><span>+</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>x</span><span><span>y</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span>′</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span><span>=</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>0.</span></span><span><span></span><span><span>(</span><span><span>1</span></span><span>)</span></span></span></span></span></span><p>代入 <span><span>x=0, y=1x=0,\ y=1</span><span><span><span></span><span>x</span><span></span><span>=</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>0</span><span>,</span><span> </span><span></span><span>y</span><span></span><span>=</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>1</span></span></span></span>：<span><span>ey′+1=0ey'+1=0</span><span><span><span></span><span>e</span><span><span>y</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span>′</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span><span>+</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>1</span><span></span><span>=</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>0</span></span></span></span>，所以 <span><span>y′(0)=−1ey'(0)=-\dfrac1e</span><span><span><span></span><span><span>y</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span>′</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span>(</span><span>0</span><span>)</span><span></span><span>=</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>−</span><span><span></span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>e</span></span></span><span><span></span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span>1</span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span></span></span></span></span>。</p><p>对 (1) 再求导：</p><span><span><span>ey(y′)2+eyy′′+y′+y′+xy′′=0.e^y(y')^2+e^yy''+y'+y'+xy''=0.</span><span><span><span></span><span><span>e</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>y</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span>(</span><span><span>y</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span>′</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span><span>)</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>2</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span><span>+</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span>e</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>y</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span><span>y</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span>′′</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span><span>+</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span>y</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span>′</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span><span>+</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span>y</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span>′</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span><span>+</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>x</span><span><span>y</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span>′′</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span><span>=</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>0.</span></span></span></span></span><p>代入 <span><span>x=0, y=1, y′=−1ex=0,\ y=1,\ y'=-\frac1e</span><span><span><span></span><span>x</span><span></span><span>=</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>0</span><span>,</span><span> </span><span></span><span>y</span><span></span><span>=</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>1</span><span>,</span><span> </span><span></span><span><span>y</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span>′</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span><span>=</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>−</span><span><span></span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span>e</span></span></span></span><span><span></span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span><span>1</span></span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span></span></span></span></span>：<span><span>e⋅1e2+ey′′−2e=0e\cdot\dfrac1{e^2}+ey''-\dfrac2e=0</span><span><span><span></span><span>e</span><span></span><span>⋅</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span></span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span>e</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>2</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span><span></span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span>1</span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span></span><span></span><span>+</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>e</span><span><span>y</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span>′′</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span><span>−</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span></span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>e</span></span></span><span><span></span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span>2</span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span></span><span></span><span>=</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>0</span></span></span></span>，得 <span><span>y′′(0)=1e2y''(0)=\boxed{\dfrac{1}{e^2}}</span><span><span><span></span><span><span>y</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span>′′</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span>(</span><span>0</span><span>)</span><span></span><span>=</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span>e</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>2</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span><span></span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span>1</span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span><span></span><span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span>。</p></section><section><h3>题型 6：参数方程求导<a href="#题型-6参数方程求导"><span>#</span></a></h3><p><strong>例 8</strong> 设 <span><span>{x=t−sin⁡ty=1−cos⁡t\begin{cases}x=t-\sin t\\y=1-\cos t\end{cases}</span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span>{</span></span><span><span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>x</span><span></span><span>=</span><span></span><span>t</span><span></span><span>−</span><span></span><span>sin</span><span></span><span>t</span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span>y</span><span></span><span>=</span><span></span><span>1</span><span></span><span>−</span><span></span><span>cos</span><span></span><span>t</span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span></span></span></span></span>，求 <span><span>t=π2t=\dfrac\pi2</span><span><span><span></span><span>t</span><span></span><span>=</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span></span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>2</span></span></span><span><span></span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span>π</span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span></span></span></span></span> 处的 <span><span>dydx\dfrac{\mathrm dy}{\mathrm dx}</span><span><span><span></span><span><span></span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>d</span><span>x</span></span></span><span><span></span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span>d</span><span>y</span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span></span></span></span></span> 和 <span><span>d2ydx2\dfrac{\mathrm d^2y}{\mathrm dx^2}</span><span><span><span></span><span><span></span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>d</span><span><span>x</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>2</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span><span></span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span><span>d</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>2</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span>y</span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span></span></span></span></span>。</p><p><strong>解</strong> 一阶：</p><span><span><span>dydx=sin⁡t1−cos⁡t.\frac{\mathrm dy}{\mathrm dx}=\frac{\sin t}{1-\cos t}.</span><span><span><span></span><span><span></span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>d</span><span>x</span></span></span><span><span></span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span>d</span><span>y</span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span></span><span></span><span>=</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span></span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>1</span><span></span><span>−</span><span></span><span>cos</span><span></span><span>t</span></span></span><span><span></span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span>sin</span><span></span><span>t</span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span></span><span>.</span></span></span></span></span><p>二阶：先把一阶导数对 <span><span>tt</span><span><span><span></span><span>t</span></span></span></span> 求导，<strong>再除以 <span><span>x′(t)x'(t)</span><span><span><span></span><span><span>x</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span>′</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span>(</span><span>t</span><span>)</span></span></span></span></strong>：</p><span><span><span>ddt(sin⁡t1−cos⁡t)=cos⁡t(1−cos⁡t)−sin⁡2t(1−cos⁡t)2=cos⁡t−1(1−cos⁡t)2=−11−cos⁡t,\frac{\mathrm d}{\mathrm dt}\left(\frac{\sin t}{1-\cos t}\right)=\frac{\cos t(1-\cos t)-\sin^2t}{(1-\cos t)^2}=\frac{\cos t-1}{(1-\cos t)^2}=-\frac{1}{1-\cos t},</span><span><span><span></span><span><span></span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>d</span><span>t</span></span></span><span><span></span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span>d</span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span></span><span></span><span><span><span>(</span></span><span><span></span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>1</span><span></span><span>−</span><span></span><span>cos</span><span></span><span>t</span></span></span><span><span></span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span>sin</span><span></span><span>t</span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span></span><span><span>)</span></span></span><span></span><span>=</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span></span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>(</span><span>1</span><span></span><span>−</span><span></span><span>cos</span><span></span><span>t</span><span><span>)</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>2</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span><span></span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span>cos</span><span></span><span>t</span><span>(</span><span>1</span><span></span><span>−</span><span></span><span>cos</span><span></span><span>t</span><span>)</span><span></span><span>−</span><span></span><span><span>sin</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>2</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span><span>t</span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span></span><span></span><span>=</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span></span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>(</span><span>1</span><span></span><span>−</span><span></span><span>cos</span><span></span><span>t</span><span><span>)</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>2</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span><span></span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span>cos</span><span></span><span>t</span><span></span><span>−</span><span></span><span>1</span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span></span><span></span><span>=</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>−</span><span><span></span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>1</span><span></span><span>−</span><span></span><span>cos</span><span></span><span>t</span></span></span><span><span></span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span>1</span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span></span><span>,</span></span></span></span></span><span><span><span>d2ydx2=−11−cos⁡t1−cos⁡t=−1(1−cos⁡t)2.\frac{\mathrm d^2y}{\mathrm dx^2}=\frac{-\frac{1}{1-\cos t}}{1-\cos t}=-\frac{1}{(1-\cos t)^2}.</span><span><span><span></span><span><span></span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>d</span><span><span>x</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>2</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span><span></span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span><span>d</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>2</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span>y</span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span></span><span></span><span>=</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span></span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>1</span><span></span><span>−</span><span></span><span>cos</span><span></span><span>t</span></span></span><span><span></span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span>−</span><span><span></span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span>1</span><span>−</span><span><span>c</span><span>o</span><span>s</span></span><span></span><span>t</span></span></span></span><span><span></span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span><span>1</span></span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span></span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span></span><span></span><span>=</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>−</span><span><span></span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>(</span><span>1</span><span></span><span>−</span><span></span><span>cos</span><span></span><span>t</span><span><span>)</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>2</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span><span></span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span>1</span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span></span><span>.</span></span></span></span></span><p>代入 <span><span>t=π2t=\dfrac\pi2</span><span><span><span></span><span>t</span><span></span><span>=</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span></span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>2</span></span></span><span><span></span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span>π</span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span></span></span></span></span>：<span><span>dydx=1\dfrac{\mathrm dy}{\mathrm dx}=\boxed1</span><span><span><span></span><span><span></span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>d</span><span>x</span></span></span><span><span></span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span>d</span><span>y</span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span></span><span></span><span>=</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span><span>1</span></span></span></span></span><span><span></span><span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span>，<span><span>d2ydx2=−1\dfrac{\mathrm d^2y}{\mathrm dx^2}=\boxed{-1}</span><span><span><span></span><span><span></span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>d</span><span><span>x</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>2</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span><span></span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span><span>d</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>2</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span>y</span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span></span><span></span><span>=</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span><span>−</span><span>1</span></span></span></span></span><span><span></span><span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span>。</p><div><div><div></div><div>最常见的错误</div></div><div><p>二阶导写成 <span><span>y′′(t)x′′(t)\dfrac{y''(t)}{x''(t)}</span><span><span><span></span><span><span></span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span>x</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span>′′</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span>(</span><span>t</span><span>)</span></span></span><span><span></span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span><span>y</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span>′′</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span>(</span><span>t</span><span>)</span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span></span></span></span></span>，或者只对 <span><span>tt</span><span><span><span></span><span>t</span></span></span></span> 求导而忘了除以 <span><span>x′(t)x'(t)</span><span><span><span></span><span><span>x</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span>′</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span>(</span><span>t</span><span>)</span></span></span></span>。</p></div></div></section><section><h3>题型 7：反函数的导数<a href="#题型-7反函数的导数"><span>#</span></a></h3><p><strong>例 9</strong> 设 <span><span>y=x+exy=x+e^x</span><span><span><span></span><span>y</span><span></span><span>=</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>x</span><span></span><span>+</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span>e</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>x</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span>，<span><span>x=x(y)x=x(y)</span><span><span><span></span><span>x</span><span></span><span>=</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>x</span><span>(</span><span>y</span><span>)</span></span></span></span> 是它的反函数，求 <span><span>d2xdy2\dfrac{\mathrm d^2x}{\mathrm dy^2}</span><span><span><span></span><span><span></span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>d</span><span><span>y</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>2</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span><span></span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span><span>d</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>2</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span>x</span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span></span></span></span></span> 在 <span><span>x=0x=0</span><span><span><span></span><span>x</span><span></span><span>=</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>0</span></span></span></span> 处的值。</p><p><strong>解</strong> <span><span>y′=1+exy'=1+e^x</span><span><span><span></span><span><span>y</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span>′</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span><span>=</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>1</span><span></span><span>+</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span>e</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>x</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span>，<span><span>y′′=exy''=e^x</span><span><span><span></span><span><span>y</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span>′′</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span><span>=</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span>e</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>x</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span>。<span><span>x=0x=0</span><span><span><span></span><span>x</span><span></span><span>=</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>0</span></span></span></span> 时 <span><span>y′=2y'=2</span><span><span><span></span><span><span>y</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span>′</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span><span>=</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>2</span></span></span></span>，<span><span>y′′=1y''=1</span><span><span><span></span><span><span>y</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span>′′</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span><span>=</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>1</span></span></span></span>，所以</p><span><span><span>d2xdy2=−y′′(y′)3=−18.\frac{\mathrm d^2x}{\mathrm dy^2}=-\frac{y''}{(y')^3}=\boxed{-\frac18}.</span><span><span><span></span><span><span></span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>d</span><span><span>y</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>2</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span><span></span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span><span>d</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>2</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span>x</span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span></span><span></span><span>=</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>−</span><span><span></span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>(</span><span><span>y</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span>′</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span><span>)</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>3</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span><span></span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span><span>y</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span>′′</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span></span><span></span><span>=</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span><span>−</span><span><span></span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>8</span></span></span><span><span></span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span>1</span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span><span></span><span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span><span>.</span></span></span></span></span></section><section><h3>题型 8：高阶导数<a href="#题型-8高阶导数"><span>#</span></a></h3><p>三种方法：</p>

<table><thead><tr><th>方法</th><th>适用情况</th></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td>套公式</td><td>分式先拆成部分分式；三角函数先降次、积化和差</td></tr><tr><td>莱布尼茨公式</td><td>多项式 × 另一个函数</td></tr><tr><td>泰勒展开</td><td>只求 <span><span>f(n)(0)f^{(n)}(0)</span><span><span><span></span><span><span>f</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span>(</span><span>n</span><span>)</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span>(</span><span>0</span><span>)</span></span></span></span></td></tr></tbody></table><p><strong>例 10</strong> 求 <span><span>y=1x2−3x+2y=\dfrac{1}{x^2-3x+2}</span><span><span><span></span><span>y</span><span></span><span>=</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span></span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span>x</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>2</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span><span>−</span><span></span><span>3</span><span>x</span><span></span><span>+</span><span></span><span>2</span></span></span><span><span></span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span>1</span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span></span></span></span></span> 的 <span><span>nn</span><span><span><span></span><span>n</span></span></span></span> 阶导数。</p><p><strong>解</strong> 拆分：<span><span>1(x−1)(x−2)=1x−2−1x−1\dfrac{1}{(x-1)(x-2)}=\dfrac{1}{x-2}-\dfrac{1}{x-1}</span><span><span><span></span><span><span></span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>(</span><span>x</span><span></span><span>−</span><span></span><span>1</span><span>)</span><span>(</span><span>x</span><span></span><span>−</span><span></span><span>2</span><span>)</span></span></span><span><span></span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span>1</span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span></span><span></span><span>=</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span></span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>x</span><span></span><span>−</span><span></span><span>2</span></span></span><span><span></span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span>1</span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span></span><span></span><span>−</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span></span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>x</span><span></span><span>−</span><span></span><span>1</span></span></span><span><span></span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span>1</span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span></span></span></span></span>，再套公式：</p><span><span><span>y(n)=(−1)nn![1(x−2)n+1−1(x−1)n+1].y^{(n)}=(-1)^nn!\left[\frac{1}{(x-2)^{n+1}}-\frac{1}{(x-1)^{n+1}}\right].</span><span><span><span></span><span><span>y</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span>(</span><span>n</span><span>)</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span><span>=</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>(</span><span>−</span><span>1</span><span><span>)</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>n</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span>n</span><span>!</span><span></span><span><span><span>[</span></span><span><span></span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>(</span><span>x</span><span></span><span>−</span><span></span><span>2</span><span><span>)</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span>n</span><span>+</span><span>1</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span><span></span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span>1</span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span></span><span></span><span>−</span><span></span><span><span></span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>(</span><span>x</span><span></span><span>−</span><span></span><span>1</span><span><span>)</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span>n</span><span>+</span><span>1</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span><span></span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span>1</span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span></span><span><span>]</span></span></span><span></span><span>.</span></span></span></span></span><p><strong>例 11</strong> 求 <span><span>y=x2e2xy=x^2e^{2x}</span><span><span><span></span><span>y</span><span></span><span>=</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span>x</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>2</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span><span>e</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span>2</span><span>x</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span> 的 <span><span>nn</span><span><span><span></span><span>n</span></span></span></span> 阶导数。</p><p><strong>解</strong> 取 <span><span>u=x2u=x^2</span><span><span><span></span><span>u</span><span></span><span>=</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span>x</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>2</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span>（只有前 3 阶非零），<span><span>v=e2xv=e^{2x}</span><span><span><span></span><span>v</span><span></span><span>=</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span>e</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span>2</span><span>x</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span>：</p><span><span><span>y(n)=x2⋅2ne2x+n⋅2x⋅2n−1e2x+n(n−1)2⋅2⋅2n−2e2x=2n−2e2x[4x2+4nx+n(n−1)].\begin{aligned}
y^{(n)}&amp;=x^2\cdot2^ne^{2x}+n\cdot2x\cdot2^{n-1}e^{2x}+\frac{n(n-1)}{2}\cdot2\cdot2^{n-2}e^{2x}\\
&amp;=2^{n-2}e^{2x}\left[4x^2+4nx+n(n-1)\right].
\end{aligned}</span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span>y</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span>(</span><span>n</span><span>)</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span><span></span><span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span></span><span></span><span>=</span><span></span><span><span>x</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>2</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span><span>⋅</span><span></span><span><span>2</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>n</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span><span>e</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span>2</span><span>x</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span><span>+</span><span></span><span>n</span><span></span><span>⋅</span><span></span><span>2</span><span>x</span><span></span><span>⋅</span><span></span><span><span>2</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span>n</span><span>−</span><span>1</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span><span>e</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span>2</span><span>x</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span><span>+</span><span></span><span><span></span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>2</span></span></span><span><span></span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span>n</span><span>(</span><span>n</span><span></span><span>−</span><span></span><span>1</span><span>)</span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span></span><span></span><span>⋅</span><span></span><span>2</span><span></span><span>⋅</span><span></span><span><span>2</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span>n</span><span>−</span><span>2</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span><span>e</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span>2</span><span>x</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span></span><span></span><span>=</span><span></span><span><span>2</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span>n</span><span>−</span><span>2</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span><span>e</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span>2</span><span>x</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span><span><span><span>[</span></span><span>4</span><span><span>x</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>2</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span><span>+</span><span></span><span>4</span><span>n</span><span>x</span><span></span><span>+</span><span></span><span>n</span><span>(</span><span>n</span><span></span><span>−</span><span></span><span>1</span><span>)</span><span><span>]</span></span></span><span></span><span>.</span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><p><strong>例 12</strong> 设 <span><span>f(x)=x2ln⁡(1+x)f(x)=x^2\ln(1+x)</span><span><span><span></span><span>f</span><span>(</span><span>x</span><span>)</span><span></span><span>=</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span>x</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>2</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span><span>ln</span><span>(</span><span>1</span><span></span><span>+</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>x</span><span>)</span></span></span></span>，求 <span><span>f(n)(0) (n≥3)f^{(n)}(0)\ (n\ge3)</span><span><span><span></span><span><span>f</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span>(</span><span>n</span><span>)</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span>(</span><span>0</span><span>)</span><span> </span><span>(</span><span>n</span><span></span><span>≥</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>3</span><span>)</span></span></span></span>。</p><p><strong>解</strong> 泰勒展开中 <span><span>xnx^n</span><span><span><span></span><span><span>x</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>n</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span> 的系数等于 <span><span>f(n)(0)n!\dfrac{f^{(n)}(0)}{n!}</span><span><span><span></span><span><span></span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>n</span><span>!</span></span></span><span><span></span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span><span>f</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span>(</span><span>n</span><span>)</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span>(</span><span>0</span><span>)</span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span></span></span></span></span>。</p><span><span><span>x2ln⁡(1+x)=x2∑k=1∞(−1)k−1xkk=∑k=1∞(−1)k−1xk+2k.x^2\ln(1+x)=x^2\sum_{k=1}^{\infty}\frac{(-1)^{k-1}x^k}{k}=\sum_{k=1}^{\infty}\frac{(-1)^{k-1}x^{k+2}}{k}.</span><span><span><span></span><span><span>x</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>2</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span><span>ln</span><span>(</span><span>1</span><span></span><span>+</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>x</span><span>)</span><span></span><span>=</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span>x</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>2</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span>k</span><span>=</span><span>1</span></span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span>∑</span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span><span>∞</span></span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span><span><span></span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>k</span></span></span><span><span></span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span>(</span><span>−</span><span>1</span><span><span>)</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span>k</span><span>−</span><span>1</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span><span>x</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>k</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span></span><span></span><span>=</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span>k</span><span>=</span><span>1</span></span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span>∑</span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span><span>∞</span></span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span><span><span></span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>k</span></span></span><span><span></span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span>(</span><span>−</span><span>1</span><span><span>)</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span>k</span><span>−</span><span>1</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span><span>x</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span>k</span><span>+</span><span>2</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span></span><span>.</span></span></span></span></span><p><span><span>xnx^n</span><span><span><span></span><span><span>x</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>n</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span> 对应 <span><span>k=n−2k=n-2</span><span><span><span></span><span>k</span><span></span><span>=</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>n</span><span></span><span>−</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>2</span></span></span></span>，系数为 <span><span>(−1)n−3n−2=(−1)n−1n−2\dfrac{(-1)^{n-3}}{n-2}=\dfrac{(-1)^{n-1}}{n-2}</span><span><span><span></span><span><span></span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>n</span><span></span><span>−</span><span></span><span>2</span></span></span><span><span></span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span>(</span><span>−</span><span>1</span><span><span>)</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span>n</span><span>−</span><span>3</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span></span><span></span><span>=</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span></span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>n</span><span></span><span>−</span><span></span><span>2</span></span></span><span><span></span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span>(</span><span>−</span><span>1</span><span><span>)</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span>n</span><span>−</span><span>1</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span></span></span></span></span>，所以</p><span><span><span>f(n)(0)=(−1)n−1 n!n−2.f^{(n)}(0)=\boxed{\frac{(-1)^{n-1}\,n!}{n-2}}.</span><span><span><span></span><span><span>f</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span>(</span><span>n</span><span>)</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span>(</span><span>0</span><span>)</span><span></span><span>=</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>n</span><span></span><span>−</span><span></span><span>2</span></span></span><span><span></span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span>(</span><span>−</span><span>1</span><span><span>)</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span>n</span><span>−</span><span>1</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span><span>n</span><span>!</span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span><span></span><span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span><span>.</span></span></span></span></span><div><div><div></div><div>泰勒法的核心</div></div><div><p><span><span>f(n)(0)=n!×(xn 的系数)f^{(n)}(0)=n!\times(x^n\text{ 的系数})</span><span><span><span></span><span><span>f</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span>(</span><span>n</span><span>)</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span>(</span><span>0</span><span>)</span><span></span><span>=</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>n</span><span>!</span><span></span><span>×</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>(</span><span><span>x</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>n</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span><span> </span><span>的系数</span></span><span>)</span></span></span></span>
这比用莱布尼茨公式快得多。</p></div></div></section><section><h3>题型 9：切线、法线与相关变化率<a href="#题型-9切线法线与相关变化率"><span>#</span></a></h3><p><strong>例 13</strong> 求曲线 <span><span>y=ln⁡xy=\ln x</span><span><span><span></span><span>y</span><span></span><span>=</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>ln</span><span></span><span>x</span></span></span></span> 过原点的切线方程。</p><p><strong>解</strong> 注意“<strong>过</strong>原点”不代表切点是原点。设切点为 <span><span>(a,ln⁡a)(a,\ln a)</span><span><span><span></span><span>(</span><span>a</span><span>,</span><span></span><span>ln</span><span></span><span>a</span><span>)</span></span></span></span>，切线为 <span><span>y−ln⁡a=1a(x−a)y-\ln a=\dfrac1a(x-a)</span><span><span><span></span><span>y</span><span></span><span>−</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>ln</span><span></span><span>a</span><span></span><span>=</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span></span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>a</span></span></span><span><span></span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span>1</span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span></span><span>(</span><span>x</span><span></span><span>−</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>a</span><span>)</span></span></span></span>。</p><p>代入原点 <span><span>(0,0)(0,0)</span><span><span><span></span><span>(</span><span>0</span><span>,</span><span></span><span>0</span><span>)</span></span></span></span>：<span><span>−ln⁡a=−1-\ln a=-1</span><span><span><span></span><span>−</span><span></span><span>ln</span><span></span><span>a</span><span></span><span>=</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>−</span><span>1</span></span></span></span>，得 <span><span>a=ea=e</span><span><span><span></span><span>a</span><span></span><span>=</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>e</span></span></span></span>。切线方程为 <span><span>y=xe\boxed{y=\dfrac xe}</span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span><span>y</span><span></span><span>=</span><span></span><span><span></span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>e</span></span></span><span><span></span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span>x</span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span><span></span><span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span>。</p><div><div><div></div><div>易错</div></div><div><p>“在某点处的切线”：这个点就是切点；“过某点的切线”：这个点不一定是切点，要先设切点。</p></div></div><p><strong>例 14（相关变化率）</strong> 球的半径以 <span><span>2 cm/s2\ \text{cm/s}</span><span><span><span></span><span>2</span><span> </span><span><span>cm/s</span></span></span></span></span> 的速度增大，求半径为 <span><span>10 cm10\ \text{cm}</span><span><span><span></span><span>10</span><span> </span><span><span>cm</span></span></span></span></span> 时体积的增长速度。</p><p><strong>解</strong> <span><span>V=43πr3V=\dfrac43\pi r^3</span><span><span><span></span><span>V</span><span></span><span>=</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span></span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>3</span></span></span><span><span></span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span>4</span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span></span><span>π</span><span><span>r</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>3</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span>，两边对时间 <span><span>tt</span><span><span><span></span><span>t</span></span></span></span> 求导：</p><span><span><span>dVdt=4πr2drdt=4π⋅100⋅2=800π cm3/s.\frac{\mathrm dV}{\mathrm dt}=4\pi r^2\frac{\mathrm dr}{\mathrm dt}=4\pi\cdot100\cdot2=\boxed{800\pi\ \text{cm}^3/\text{s}}.</span><span><span><span></span><span><span></span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>d</span><span>t</span></span></span><span><span></span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span>d</span><span>V</span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span></span><span></span><span>=</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>4</span><span>π</span><span><span>r</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>2</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>d</span><span>t</span></span></span><span><span></span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span>d</span><span>r</span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span></span><span></span><span>=</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>4</span><span>π</span><span></span><span>⋅</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>100</span><span></span><span>⋅</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>2</span><span></span><span>=</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span><span>800</span><span>π</span><span> </span><span><span><span>cm</span></span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>3</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span>/</span><span><span>s</span></span></span></span></span></span><span><span></span><span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span><span>.</span></span></span></span></span><p>套路：<strong>先写出变量之间的关系式，再两边对时间求导</strong>。</p></section></section>
<section><h2>五、证明思路<a href="#五证明思路"><span>#</span></a></h2><section><h3>1. 可导必连续<a href="#1-可导必连续"><span>#</span></a></h3><span><span><span>f(x)−f(x0)=f(x)−f(x0)x−x0⋅(x−x0)→f′(x0)⋅0=0.f(x)-f(x_0)=\frac{f(x)-f(x_0)}{x-x_0}\cdot(x-x_0)\to f'(x_0)\cdot0=0.</span><span><span><span></span><span>f</span><span>(</span><span>x</span><span>)</span><span></span><span>−</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>f</span><span>(</span><span><span>x</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>0</span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span>)</span><span></span><span>=</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span></span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>x</span><span></span><span>−</span><span></span><span><span>x</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>0</span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span><span></span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span>f</span><span>(</span><span>x</span><span>)</span><span></span><span>−</span><span></span><span>f</span><span>(</span><span><span>x</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>0</span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span>)</span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span></span><span></span><span>⋅</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>(</span><span>x</span><span></span><span>−</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span>x</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>0</span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span>)</span><span></span><span>→</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span>f</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span>′</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span>(</span><span><span>x</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>0</span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span>)</span><span></span><span>⋅</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>0</span><span></span><span>=</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>0.</span></span></span></span></span><p>所以 <span><span>lim⁡x→x0f(x)=f(x0)\lim\limits_{x\to x_0}f(x)=f(x_0)</span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span>x</span><span>→</span><span><span>x</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>0</span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span>lim</span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span><span>f</span><span>(</span><span>x</span><span>)</span><span></span><span>=</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>f</span><span>(</span><span><span>x</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>0</span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span>)</span></span></span></span>，即连续。</p></section><section><h3>2. 乘积法则<a href="#2-乘积法则"><span>#</span></a></h3><p>关键一步是<strong>加一项减一项</strong> <span><span>u(x+h)v(x)u(x+h)v(x)</span><span><span><span></span><span>u</span><span>(</span><span>x</span><span></span><span>+</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>h</span><span>)</span><span>v</span><span>(</span><span>x</span><span>)</span></span></span></span>：</p><span><span><span>u(x+h)v(x+h)−u(x)v(x)h=u(x+h)v(x+h)−v(x)h+v(x)u(x+h)−u(x)h→uv′+u′v.\frac{u(x+h)v(x+h)-u(x)v(x)}{h}=u(x+h)\frac{v(x+h)-v(x)}{h}+v(x)\frac{u(x+h)-u(x)}{h}\to uv'+u'v.</span><span><span><span></span><span><span></span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>h</span></span></span><span><span></span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span>u</span><span>(</span><span>x</span><span></span><span>+</span><span></span><span>h</span><span>)</span><span>v</span><span>(</span><span>x</span><span></span><span>+</span><span></span><span>h</span><span>)</span><span></span><span>−</span><span></span><span>u</span><span>(</span><span>x</span><span>)</span><span>v</span><span>(</span><span>x</span><span>)</span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span></span><span></span><span>=</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>u</span><span>(</span><span>x</span><span></span><span>+</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>h</span><span>)</span><span><span></span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>h</span></span></span><span><span></span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span>v</span><span>(</span><span>x</span><span></span><span>+</span><span></span><span>h</span><span>)</span><span></span><span>−</span><span></span><span>v</span><span>(</span><span>x</span><span>)</span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span></span><span></span><span>+</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>v</span><span>(</span><span>x</span><span>)</span><span><span></span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>h</span></span></span><span><span></span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span>u</span><span>(</span><span>x</span><span></span><span>+</span><span></span><span>h</span><span>)</span><span></span><span>−</span><span></span><span>u</span><span>(</span><span>x</span><span>)</span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span></span><span></span><span>→</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>u</span><span><span>v</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span>′</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span><span>+</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span>u</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span>′</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span>v</span><span>.</span></span></span></span></span><p>这里用到 <span><span>uu</span><span><span><span></span><span>u</span></span></span></span> 可导所以连续，<span><span>u(x+h)→u(x)u(x+h)\to u(x)</span><span><span><span></span><span>u</span><span>(</span><span>x</span><span></span><span>+</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>h</span><span>)</span><span></span><span>→</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>u</span><span>(</span><span>x</span><span>)</span></span></span></span>。</p></section><section><h3>3. 链式法则<a href="#3-链式法则"><span>#</span></a></h3><p>设 <span><span>u=g(x)u=g(x)</span><span><span><span></span><span>u</span><span></span><span>=</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>g</span><span>(</span><span>x</span><span>)</span></span></span></span>，<span><span>y=f(u)y=f(u)</span><span><span><span></span><span>y</span><span></span><span>=</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>f</span><span>(</span><span>u</span><span>)</span></span></span></span>。直观上：</p><span><span><span>ΔyΔx=ΔyΔu⋅ΔuΔx→f′(u) g′(x).\frac{\Delta y}{\Delta x}=\frac{\Delta y}{\Delta u}\cdot\frac{\Delta u}{\Delta x}\to f'(u)\,g'(x).</span><span><span><span></span><span><span></span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>Δ</span><span>x</span></span></span><span><span></span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span>Δ</span><span>y</span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span></span><span></span><span>=</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span></span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>Δ</span><span>u</span></span></span><span><span></span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span>Δ</span><span>y</span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span></span><span></span><span>⋅</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span></span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>Δ</span><span>x</span></span></span><span><span></span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span>Δ</span><span>u</span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span></span><span></span><span>→</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span>f</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span>′</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span>(</span><span>u</span><span>)</span><span></span><span><span>g</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span>′</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span>(</span><span>x</span><span>)</span><span>.</span></span></span></span></span><p>严格证明还要处理 <span><span>Δu=0\Delta u=0</span><span><span><span></span><span>Δ</span><span>u</span><span></span><span>=</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>0</span></span></span></span> 的情况，考试不要求。</p></section><section><h3>4. 反函数与参数方程的二阶导<a href="#4-反函数与参数方程的二阶导"><span>#</span></a></h3><p>都是链式法则：</p><ul>
<li>反函数：<span><span>dxdy=1y′(x)\dfrac{\mathrm dx}{\mathrm dy}=\dfrac1{y'(x)}</span><span><span><span></span><span><span></span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>d</span><span>y</span></span></span><span><span></span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span>d</span><span>x</span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span></span><span></span><span>=</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span></span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span>y</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span>′</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span>(</span><span>x</span><span>)</span></span></span><span><span></span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span>1</span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span></span></span></span></span> 是 <span><span>xx</span><span><span><span></span><span>x</span></span></span></span> 的函数，对 <span><span>yy</span><span><span><span></span><span>y</span></span></span></span> 求导要乘 <span><span>dxdy\dfrac{\mathrm dx}{\mathrm dy}</span><span><span><span></span><span><span></span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>d</span><span>y</span></span></span><span><span></span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span>d</span><span>x</span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span></span></span></span></span>：
<span><span>d2xdy2=ddx(1y′)⋅dxdy=−y′′(y′)2⋅1y′=−y′′(y′)3.\frac{\mathrm d^2x}{\mathrm dy^2}=\frac{\mathrm d}{\mathrm dx}\left(\frac1{y'}\right)\cdot\frac{\mathrm dx}{\mathrm dy}=-\frac{y''}{(y')^2}\cdot\frac{1}{y'}=-\frac{y''}{(y')^3}.</span><span><span><span></span><span><span></span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span>d</span><span><span>y</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>2</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span><span></span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span><span><span>d</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>2</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span>x</span></span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span></span><span></span><span>=</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span></span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span>d</span><span>x</span></span></span></span><span><span></span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span><span>d</span></span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span></span><span></span><span><span><span>(</span></span><span><span></span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span><span>y</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span>′</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span><span></span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span><span>1</span></span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span></span><span><span>)</span></span></span><span></span><span>⋅</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span></span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span>d</span><span>y</span></span></span></span><span><span></span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span><span>d</span><span>x</span></span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span></span><span></span><span>=</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>−</span><span><span></span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span>(</span><span><span>y</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span>′</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span><span>)</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>2</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span><span></span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span><span><span>y</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span>′′</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span></span><span></span><span>⋅</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span></span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span><span>y</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span>′</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span><span></span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span><span>1</span></span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span></span><span></span><span>=</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>−</span><span><span></span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span>(</span><span><span>y</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span>′</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span><span>)</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>3</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span><span></span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span><span><span>y</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span>′′</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span></span><span>.</span></span></span></span></li>
<li>参数方程：<span><span>dydx\dfrac{\mathrm dy}{\mathrm dx}</span><span><span><span></span><span><span></span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>d</span><span>x</span></span></span><span><span></span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span>d</span><span>y</span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span></span></span></span></span> 是 <span><span>tt</span><span><span><span></span><span>t</span></span></span></span> 的函数，对 <span><span>xx</span><span><span><span></span><span>x</span></span></span></span> 求导要乘 <span><span>dtdx=1x′(t)\dfrac{\mathrm dt}{\mathrm dx}=\dfrac1{x'(t)}</span><span><span><span></span><span><span></span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>d</span><span>x</span></span></span><span><span></span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span>d</span><span>t</span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span></span><span></span><span>=</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span></span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span>x</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span>′</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span>(</span><span>t</span><span>)</span></span></span><span><span></span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span>1</span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span></span></span></span></span>，所以二阶导是“对 <span><span>tt</span><span><span><span></span><span>t</span></span></span></span> 求导，再除以 <span><span>x′(t)x'(t)</span><span><span><span></span><span><span>x</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span>′</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span>(</span><span>t</span><span>)</span></span></span></span>”。</li>
</ul></section><section><h3>5. 绝对值结论 <span><span>φ(x)∣x−a∣\varphi(x)|x-a|</span><span><span><span></span><span>φ</span><span>(</span><span>x</span><span>)</span><span>∣</span><span>x</span><span></span><span>−</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>a</span><span>∣</span></span></span></span><a href="#5-绝对值结论-φxxavarphixx-aφxxa"><span>#</span></a></h3><span><span><span>lim⁡x→a±φ(x)∣x−a∣−0x−a=±φ(a).\lim_{x\to a^\pm}\frac{\varphi(x)|x-a|-0}{x-a}=\pm\varphi(a).</span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span>x</span><span>→</span><span><span>a</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>±</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span>lim</span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span><span><span></span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>x</span><span></span><span>−</span><span></span><span>a</span></span></span><span><span></span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span>φ</span><span>(</span><span>x</span><span>)</span><span>∣</span><span>x</span><span></span><span>−</span><span></span><span>a</span><span>∣</span><span></span><span>−</span><span></span><span>0</span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span></span><span></span><span>=</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>±</span><span>φ</span><span>(</span><span>a</span><span>)</span><span>.</span></span></span></span></span><p>左右导数分别为 <span><span>−φ(a)-\varphi(a)</span><span><span><span></span><span>−</span><span>φ</span><span>(</span><span>a</span><span>)</span></span></span></span> 和 <span><span>φ(a)\varphi(a)</span><span><span><span></span><span>φ</span><span>(</span><span>a</span><span>)</span></span></span></span>，两者相等当且仅当 <span><span>φ(a)=0\varphi(a)=0</span><span><span><span></span><span>φ</span><span>(</span><span>a</span><span>)</span><span></span><span>=</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>0</span></span></span></span>。</p></section><section><h3>6. 莱布尼茨公式<a href="#6-莱布尼茨公式"><span>#</span></a></h3><p>对 <span><span>nn</span><span><span><span></span><span>n</span></span></span></span> 用数学归纳法。<span><span>(uv)′=u′v+uv′(uv)'=u'v+uv'</span><span><span><span></span><span>(</span><span>uv</span><span><span>)</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span>′</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span><span>=</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span>u</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span>′</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span>v</span><span></span><span>+</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>u</span><span><span>v</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span>′</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span> 每求一次导，就相当于把“导数次数”分给 <span><span>uu</span><span><span><span></span><span>u</span></span></span></span> 或 <span><span>vv</span><span><span><span></span><span>v</span></span></span></span>，系数的组合规律与 <span><span>(a+b)n(a+b)^n</span><span><span><span></span><span>(</span><span>a</span><span></span><span>+</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>b</span><span><span>)</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>n</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span> 展开完全相同，所以系数是 <span><span>(nk)\dbinom nk</span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span>(</span></span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>k</span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span>n</span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span><span><span>)</span></span></span></span></span></span>。</p></section></section>
<section><h2>六、易错点<a href="#六易错点"><span>#</span></a></h2><div><div><div></div><div>导函数在一点的极限 ≠ 该点的导数</div></div><div><p><span><span>f(x)={x2sin⁡1x,x≠00,x=0f(x)=\begin{cases}x^2\sin\frac1x,&amp;x\ne0\\0,&amp;x=0\end{cases}</span><span><span><span></span><span>f</span><span>(</span><span>x</span><span>)</span><span></span><span>=</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span><span>{</span></span><span><span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span>x</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>2</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span><span>sin</span><span></span><span><span></span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span>x</span></span></span></span><span><span></span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span><span>1</span></span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span></span><span>,</span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span>0</span><span>,</span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>x</span><span></span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span><span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span><span>=</span></span><span></span><span>0</span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span>x</span><span></span><span>=</span><span></span><span>0</span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span></span></span></span></span></p><p>用定义：<span><span>f′(0)=lim⁡x→0xsin⁡1x=0f'(0)=\lim\limits_{x\to0}x\sin\frac1x=0</span><span><span><span></span><span><span>f</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span>′</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span>(</span><span>0</span><span>)</span><span></span><span>=</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span>x</span><span>→</span><span>0</span></span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span>lim</span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span><span>x</span><span></span><span>sin</span><span></span><span><span></span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span>x</span></span></span></span><span><span></span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span><span>1</span></span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span></span><span></span><span>=</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>0</span></span></span></span>，可导。</p><p>但 <span><span>x≠0x\ne0</span><span><span><span></span><span>x</span><span></span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span><span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span><span>=</span></span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>0</span></span></span></span> 时 <span><span>f′(x)=2xsin⁡1x−cos⁡1xf'(x)=2x\sin\frac1x-\cos\frac1x</span><span><span><span></span><span><span>f</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span>′</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span>(</span><span>x</span><span>)</span><span></span><span>=</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>2</span><span>x</span><span></span><span>sin</span><span></span><span><span></span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span>x</span></span></span></span><span><span></span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span><span>1</span></span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span></span><span></span><span>−</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>cos</span><span></span><span><span></span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span>x</span></span></span></span><span><span></span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span><span>1</span></span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span></span></span></span></span>，<span><span>lim⁡x→0f′(x)\lim\limits_{x\to0}f'(x)</span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span>x</span><span>→</span><span>0</span></span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span>lim</span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span><span><span>f</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span>′</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span>(</span><span>x</span><span>)</span></span></span></span> 不存在。</p><p>所以：<strong>分段点的导数必须用定义求</strong>；“可导”不代表“导函数连续”。</p></div></div><ul>
<li><strong>判断可导时漏掉“一端固定”</strong>：<span><span>f(x0+h)−f(x0−h)2h\dfrac{f(x_0+h)-f(x_0-h)}{2h}</span><span><span><span></span><span><span></span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>2</span><span>h</span></span></span><span><span></span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span>f</span><span>(</span><span><span>x</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>0</span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span><span>+</span><span></span><span>h</span><span>)</span><span></span><span>−</span><span></span><span>f</span><span>(</span><span><span>x</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>0</span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span><span>−</span><span></span><span>h</span><span>)</span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span></span></span></span></span> 极限存在不能推出可导。</li>
<li><strong>增量只从一侧趋于 <span><span>00</span><span><span><span></span><span>0</span></span></span></span></strong>：<span><span>f(h2)f(h^2)</span><span><span><span></span><span>f</span><span>(</span><span><span>h</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>2</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span>)</span></span></span></span>、<span><span>f(1−cos⁡h)f(1-\cos h)</span><span><span><span></span><span>f</span><span>(</span><span>1</span><span></span><span>−</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>cos</span><span></span><span>h</span><span>)</span></span></span></span> 只能得到单侧导数。</li>
<li><strong>分段点只检查可导，不检查连续</strong>：含参数时要先用连续列方程。</li>
<li><strong>参数方程二阶导忘记除以 <span><span>x′(t)x'(t)</span><span><span><span></span><span><span>x</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span>′</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span>(</span><span>t</span><span>)</span></span></span></span></strong>。</li>
<li><strong>隐函数忘记乘 <span><span>y′y'</span><span><span><span></span><span><span>y</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span>′</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></strong>：<span><span>(ey)′=eyy′(e^y)'=e^yy'</span><span><span><span></span><span>(</span><span><span>e</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>y</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span><span>)</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span>′</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span><span>=</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span>e</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>y</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span><span>y</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span>′</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span>，不是 <span><span>eye^y</span><span><span><span></span><span><span>e</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>y</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span>。</li>
<li><strong><span><span>∣f(x)∣|f(x)|</span><span><span><span></span><span>∣</span><span>f</span><span>(</span><span>x</span><span>)</span><span>∣</span></span></span></span> 的可导性</strong>：若 <span><span>f(x0)=0f(x_0)=0</span><span><span><span></span><span>f</span><span>(</span><span><span>x</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>0</span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span>)</span><span></span><span>=</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>0</span></span></span></span> 且 <span><span>f′(x0)≠0f'(x_0)\ne0</span><span><span><span></span><span><span>f</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span>′</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span>(</span><span><span>x</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>0</span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span>)</span><span></span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span><span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span><span>=</span></span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>0</span></span></span></span>，则 <span><span>∣f(x)∣|f(x)|</span><span><span><span></span><span>∣</span><span>f</span><span>(</span><span>x</span><span>)</span><span>∣</span></span></span></span> 在 <span><span>x0x_0</span><span><span><span></span><span><span>x</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>0</span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span> 不可导。</li>
<li><strong>“过某点”的切线</strong>当成以该点为切点。</li>
</ul></section>
<section><h2>七、小练习<a href="#七小练习"><span>#</span></a></h2><p><strong>1.</strong> 设曲线 <span><span>y=f(x)y=f(x)</span><span><span><span></span><span>y</span><span></span><span>=</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>f</span><span>(</span><span>x</span><span>)</span></span></span></span> 满足 <span><span>lim⁡x→0f(1)−f(1−x)2x=−1\displaystyle\lim_{x\to0}\frac{f(1)-f(1-x)}{2x}=-1</span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span>x</span><span>→</span><span>0</span></span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span>lim</span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span><span><span></span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>2</span><span>x</span></span></span><span><span></span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span>f</span><span>(</span><span>1</span><span>)</span><span></span><span>−</span><span></span><span>f</span><span>(</span><span>1</span><span></span><span>−</span><span></span><span>x</span><span>)</span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span></span><span></span><span>=</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>−</span><span>1</span></span></span></span>，求曲线在点 <span><span>(1,f(1))(1,f(1))</span><span><span><span></span><span>(</span><span>1</span><span>,</span><span></span><span>f</span><span>(</span><span>1</span><span>))</span></span></span></span> 处的切线斜率。</p>
点击查看答案<p><span><span>f(1)−f(1−x)2x=12⋅f(1−x)−f(1)−x→12f′(1)=−1\dfrac{f(1)-f(1-x)}{2x}=\dfrac12\cdot\dfrac{f(1-x)-f(1)}{-x}\to\dfrac12f'(1)=-1</span><span><span><span></span><span><span></span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>2</span><span>x</span></span></span><span><span></span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span>f</span><span>(</span><span>1</span><span>)</span><span></span><span>−</span><span></span><span>f</span><span>(</span><span>1</span><span></span><span>−</span><span></span><span>x</span><span>)</span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span></span><span></span><span>=</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span></span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>2</span></span></span><span><span></span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span>1</span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span></span><span></span><span>⋅</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span></span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>−</span><span>x</span></span></span><span><span></span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span>f</span><span>(</span><span>1</span><span></span><span>−</span><span></span><span>x</span><span>)</span><span></span><span>−</span><span></span><span>f</span><span>(</span><span>1</span><span>)</span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span></span><span></span><span>→</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span></span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>2</span></span></span><span><span></span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span>1</span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span></span><span><span>f</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span>′</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span>(</span><span>1</span><span>)</span><span></span><span>=</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>−</span><span>1</span></span></span></span>，所以斜率 <span><span>f′(1)=−2f'(1)=-2</span><span><span><span></span><span><span>f</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span>′</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span>(</span><span>1</span><span>)</span><span></span><span>=</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>−</span><span>2</span></span></span></span>。</p><p><strong>2.</strong> 设 <span><span>y=y(x)y=y(x)</span><span><span><span></span><span>y</span><span></span><span>=</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>y</span><span>(</span><span>x</span><span>)</span></span></span></span> 由 <span><span>y=1+xeyy=1+xe^y</span><span><span><span></span><span>y</span><span></span><span>=</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>1</span><span></span><span>+</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>x</span><span><span>e</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>y</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span> 确定，求 <span><span>y′(0)y'(0)</span><span><span><span></span><span><span>y</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span>′</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span>(</span><span>0</span><span>)</span></span></span></span>。</p>
点击查看答案<p><span><span>x=0x=0</span><span><span><span></span><span>x</span><span></span><span>=</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>0</span></span></span></span> 时 <span><span>y=1y=1</span><span><span><span></span><span>y</span><span></span><span>=</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>1</span></span></span></span>。两边求导：<span><span>y′=ey+xeyy′y'=e^y+xe^yy'</span><span><span><span></span><span><span>y</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span>′</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span><span>=</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span>e</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>y</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span><span>+</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>x</span><span><span>e</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>y</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span><span>y</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span>′</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span>。代入 <span><span>x=0, y=1x=0,\ y=1</span><span><span><span></span><span>x</span><span></span><span>=</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>0</span><span>,</span><span> </span><span></span><span>y</span><span></span><span>=</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>1</span></span></span></span>：<span><span>y′(0)=ey'(0)=e</span><span><span><span></span><span><span>y</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span>′</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span>(</span><span>0</span><span>)</span><span></span><span>=</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>e</span></span></span></span>。</p><p><strong>3.</strong> 设 <span><span>{x=ln⁡(1+t2)y=t−arctan⁡t\begin{cases}x=\ln(1+t^2)\\y=t-\arctan t\end{cases}</span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span>{</span></span><span><span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>x</span><span></span><span>=</span><span></span><span>ln</span><span>(</span><span>1</span><span></span><span>+</span><span></span><span><span>t</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>2</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span>)</span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span>y</span><span></span><span>=</span><span></span><span>t</span><span></span><span>−</span><span></span><span>arctan</span><span></span><span>t</span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span></span></span></span></span>，求 <span><span>dydx\dfrac{\mathrm dy}{\mathrm dx}</span><span><span><span></span><span><span></span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>d</span><span>x</span></span></span><span><span></span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span>d</span><span>y</span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span></span></span></span></span> 和 <span><span>d2ydx2\dfrac{\mathrm d^2y}{\mathrm dx^2}</span><span><span><span></span><span><span></span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>d</span><span><span>x</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>2</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span><span></span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span><span>d</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>2</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span>y</span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span></span></span></span></span>。</p>
点击查看答案<p><span><span>x′(t)=2t1+t2x'(t)=\dfrac{2t}{1+t^2}</span><span><span><span></span><span><span>x</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span>′</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span>(</span><span>t</span><span>)</span><span></span><span>=</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span></span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>1</span><span></span><span>+</span><span></span><span><span>t</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>2</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span><span></span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span>2</span><span>t</span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span></span></span></span></span>，<span><span>y′(t)=1−11+t2=t21+t2y'(t)=1-\dfrac1{1+t^2}=\dfrac{t^2}{1+t^2}</span><span><span><span></span><span><span>y</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span>′</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span>(</span><span>t</span><span>)</span><span></span><span>=</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>1</span><span></span><span>−</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span></span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>1</span><span></span><span>+</span><span></span><span><span>t</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>2</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span><span></span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span>1</span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span></span><span></span><span>=</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span></span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>1</span><span></span><span>+</span><span></span><span><span>t</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>2</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span><span></span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span><span>t</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>2</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span></span></span></span></span>，所以 <span><span>dydx=t2\dfrac{\mathrm dy}{\mathrm dx}=\dfrac t2</span><span><span><span></span><span><span></span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>d</span><span>x</span></span></span><span><span></span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span>d</span><span>y</span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span></span><span></span><span>=</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span></span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>2</span></span></span><span><span></span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span>t</span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span></span></span></span></span>。</p><p><span><span>d2ydx2=122t1+t2=1+t24t\dfrac{\mathrm d^2y}{\mathrm dx^2}=\dfrac{\frac12}{\frac{2t}{1+t^2}}=\dfrac{1+t^2}{4t}</span><span><span><span></span><span><span></span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>d</span><span><span>x</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>2</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span><span></span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span><span>d</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>2</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span>y</span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span></span><span></span><span>=</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span></span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span>1</span><span>+</span><span><span>t</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>2</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span><span></span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span><span>2</span><span>t</span></span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span></span></span></span><span><span></span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span>2</span></span></span></span><span><span></span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span><span>1</span></span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span></span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span></span><span></span><span>=</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span></span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>4</span><span>t</span></span></span><span><span></span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span>1</span><span></span><span>+</span><span></span><span><span>t</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>2</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span></span></span></span></span>。</p><p><strong>4.</strong> 求 <span><span>y=sin⁡2xy=\sin^2x</span><span><span><span></span><span>y</span><span></span><span>=</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span>sin</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>2</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span><span>x</span></span></span></span> 的 <span><span>nn</span><span><span><span></span><span>n</span></span></span></span> 阶导数。</p>
点击查看答案<p>先降次：<span><span>sin⁡2x=1−cos⁡2x2\sin^2x=\dfrac{1-\cos2x}{2}</span><span><span><span></span><span><span>sin</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>2</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span><span>x</span><span></span><span>=</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span></span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>2</span></span></span><span><span></span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span>1</span><span></span><span>−</span><span></span><span>cos</span><span></span><span>2</span><span>x</span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span></span></span></span></span>。所以</p><p><span><span>y(n)=−12⋅2ncos⁡(2x+nπ2)=−2n−1cos⁡(2x+nπ2).y^{(n)}=-\frac12\cdot2^n\cos\left(2x+\frac{n\pi}2\right)=-2^{n-1}\cos\left(2x+\frac{n\pi}2\right).</span><span><span><span></span><span><span>y</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span>(</span><span>n</span><span>)</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span><span>=</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>−</span><span><span></span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span>2</span></span></span></span><span><span></span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span><span>1</span></span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span></span><span></span><span>⋅</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span>2</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>n</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span><span>cos</span><span></span><span><span><span>(</span></span><span>2</span><span>x</span><span></span><span>+</span><span></span><span><span></span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span>2</span></span></span></span><span><span></span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span><span>nπ</span></span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span></span><span><span>)</span></span></span><span></span><span>=</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>−</span><span><span>2</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span>n</span><span>−</span><span>1</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span><span>cos</span><span></span><span><span><span>(</span></span><span>2</span><span>x</span><span></span><span>+</span><span></span><span><span></span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span>2</span></span></span></span><span><span></span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span><span>nπ</span></span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span></span><span><span>)</span></span></span><span></span><span>.</span></span></span></span></p><p><strong>5.</strong> 求 <span><span>f(x)=(x2−1) ∣x2−3x+2∣f(x)=(x^2-1)\,|x^2-3x+2|</span><span><span><span></span><span>f</span><span>(</span><span>x</span><span>)</span><span></span><span>=</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>(</span><span><span>x</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>2</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span><span>−</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>1</span><span>)</span><span></span><span>∣</span><span><span>x</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>2</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span><span>−</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>3</span><span>x</span><span></span><span>+</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>2∣</span></span></span></span> 的不可导点。</p>
点击查看答案<p><span><span>∣x2−3x+2∣=∣x−1∣ ∣x−2∣|x^2-3x+2|=|x-1|\,|x-2|</span><span><span><span></span><span>∣</span><span><span>x</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>2</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span><span>−</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>3</span><span>x</span><span></span><span>+</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>2∣</span><span></span><span>=</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>∣</span><span>x</span><span></span><span>−</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>1∣</span><span></span><span>∣</span><span>x</span><span></span><span>−</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>2∣</span></span></span></span>，可疑点为 <span><span>x=1,2x=1,2</span><span><span><span></span><span>x</span><span></span><span>=</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>1</span><span>,</span><span></span><span>2</span></span></span></span>。</p><ul>
<li><span><span>x=1x=1</span><span><span><span></span><span>x</span><span></span><span>=</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>1</span></span></span></span>：<span><span>φ(x)=(x2−1)∣x−2∣\varphi(x)=(x^2-1)|x-2|</span><span><span><span></span><span>φ</span><span>(</span><span>x</span><span>)</span><span></span><span>=</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>(</span><span><span>x</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>2</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span><span>−</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>1</span><span>)</span><span>∣</span><span>x</span><span></span><span>−</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>2∣</span></span></span></span>，<span><span>φ(1)=0\varphi(1)=0</span><span><span><span></span><span>φ</span><span>(</span><span>1</span><span>)</span><span></span><span>=</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>0</span></span></span></span>，<strong>可导</strong>。</li>
<li><span><span>x=2x=2</span><span><span><span></span><span>x</span><span></span><span>=</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>2</span></span></span></span>：<span><span>φ(x)=(x2−1)∣x−1∣\varphi(x)=(x^2-1)|x-1|</span><span><span><span></span><span>φ</span><span>(</span><span>x</span><span>)</span><span></span><span>=</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>(</span><span><span>x</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>2</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span><span>−</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>1</span><span>)</span><span>∣</span><span>x</span><span></span><span>−</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>1∣</span></span></span></span>，<span><span>φ(2)=3≠0\varphi(2)=3\ne0</span><span><span><span></span><span>φ</span><span>(</span><span>2</span><span>)</span><span></span><span>=</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>3</span><span></span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span><span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span><span>=</span></span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>0</span></span></span></span>，<strong>不可导</strong>。</li>
</ul><p>所以只有 <span><span>x=2x=2</span><span><span><span></span><span>x</span><span></span><span>=</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>2</span></span></span></span> 一个不可导点。</p></section>
<section><h2>八、本章小结<a href="#八本章小结"><span>#</span></a></h2><ul>
<li>导数定义三要素：<strong>一端固定、另一端从两侧动、分母一致</strong>。判断题逐条核对。</li>
<li>分段点用<strong>定义</strong>求导；含参数先用<strong>连续</strong>、再用<strong>左右导数相等</strong>列方程。</li>
<li><span><span>φ(x)∣x−a∣\varphi(x)|x-a|</span><span><span><span></span><span>φ</span><span>(</span><span>x</span><span>)</span><span>∣</span><span>x</span><span></span><span>−</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>a</span><span>∣</span></span></span></span> 在 <span><span>aa</span><span><span><span></span><span>a</span></span></span></span> 处可导 <span><span>  ⟺  φ(a)=0\iff\varphi(a)=0</span><span><span><span></span><span></span><span>⟺</span><span></span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>φ</span><span>(</span><span>a</span><span>)</span><span></span><span>=</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>0</span></span></span></span>。</li>
<li>幂指函数和连乘除用<strong>对数求导法</strong>；隐函数两边对 <span><span>xx</span><span><span><span></span><span>x</span></span></span></span> 求导，<strong><span><span>yy</span><span><span><span></span><span>y</span></span></span></span> 的函数要乘 <span><span>y′y'</span><span><span><span></span><span><span>y</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span>′</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></strong>。</li>
<li>参数方程二阶导：<strong>对 <span><span>tt</span><span><span><span></span><span>t</span></span></span></span> 求导，再除以 <span><span>x′(t)x'(t)</span><span><span><span></span><span><span>x</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span>′</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span>(</span><span>t</span><span>)</span></span></span></span></strong>。</li>
<li>高阶导数：拆分/降次后套公式，多项式乘积用<strong>莱布尼茨</strong>，只求 <span><span>f(n)(0)f^{(n)}(0)</span><span><span><span></span><span><span>f</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span>(</span><span>n</span><span>)</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span>(</span><span>0</span><span>)</span></span></span></span> 用<strong>泰勒</strong>。</li>
</ul><p>下一篇：<strong>03 微分中值定理</strong>。</p></section>]]></content>
    </entry>
    <entry>
      <id>https://gsxbxsg.github.io/posts/gaoshu-03-mvt/</id>
      <title type="text">高数速成复习 03：微分中值定理</title>
      <published>2026-10-03T00:00:00.000Z</published>
      <updated>2026-10-03T00:00:00.000Z</updated>
      <author><name>ELEC</name></author>
      <link rel="alternate" href="https://gsxbxsg.github.io/posts/gaoshu-03-mvt/"/>
      <summary type="text">中值定理是数一证明题的主要来源。本篇讲清费马、罗尔、拉格朗日、柯西四个定理，以及构造辅助函数、双中值、多次罗尔等证明题套路。</summary>
      <content type="html"><![CDATA[<p>数一几乎每年都有一道和中值定理相关的证明题。很多人觉得证明题无从下手，其实常考的类型很固定：<strong>看结论的形状，选对定理，造对辅助函数</strong>。这一章就把这几种套路讲清楚。</p>
<section><h2>一、本章地图<a href="#一本章地图"><span>#</span></a></h2>

<table><thead><tr><th>模块</th><th>要掌握什么</th><th>常见考法</th></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td>四个定理</td><td>费马、罗尔、拉格朗日、柯西的条件与结论</td><td>选择题判断条件</td></tr><tr><td>构造辅助函数</td><td>还原法、常用辅助函数表</td><td>解答题证明 <span><span>∃ ξ\exists\,\xi</span><span><span><span></span><span>∃</span><span></span><span>ξ</span></span></span></span></td></tr><tr><td>多次罗尔</td><td>证明高阶导数有零点</td><td>解答题</td></tr><tr><td>双中值</td><td>证明 <span><span>∃ ξ,η\exists\,\xi,\eta</span><span><span><span></span><span>∃</span><span></span><span>ξ</span><span>,</span><span></span><span>η</span></span></span></span></td><td>解答题</td></tr><tr><td>拉格朗日的应用</td><td>证明不等式、求极限、证明恒等式</td><td>解答、填空</td></tr></tbody></table><p>拿到证明题，先看结论：</p><div><div><div><div><span></span></div><div><span></span></div><div><span></span></div><div><span></span></div><div><span></span></div><div><span></span></div><div><span></span></div><div><span></span></div><div><span><p>结论中有什么</p></span></div><div><span><p>只有一个 ξ，等式右边为 0</p></span></div><div><span><p>只有一个 ξ，还含 a、b</p></span></div><div><span><p>两个中值 ξ、η</p></span></div><div><span><p>高阶导数 f^(n)(ξ)=0</p></span></div><div><span><p>构造辅助函数 F，用罗尔</p></span></div><div><span><p>a、b 能分离成差商 → 拉格朗日或柯西</p></span></div><div><span><p>ξ、η 无需不同 → 两个定理各用一次<br /><br />要求不同 → 找分点 c 分两段</p></span></div><div><span><p>多次用罗尔，逐阶找零点</p></span></div>
</div><div><div><span></span></div><div><span></span></div><div><span></span></div><div><span></span></div><div><span></span></div><div><span></span></div><div><span></span></div><div><span></span></div><div><span><p>结论中有什么</p></span></div><div><span><p>只有一个 ξ，等式右边为 0</p></span></div><div><span><p>只有一个 ξ，还含 a、b</p></span></div><div><span><p>两个中值 ξ、η</p></span></div><div><span><p>高阶导数 f^(n)(ξ)=0</p></span></div><div><span><p>构造辅助函数 F，用罗尔</p></span></div><div><span><p>a、b 能分离成差商 → 拉格朗日或柯西</p></span></div><div><span><p>ξ、η 无需不同 → 两个定理各用一次<br /><br />要求不同 → 找分点 c 分两段</p></span></div><div><span><p>多次用罗尔，逐阶找零点</p></span></div>
</div></div></div></section>
<section><h2>二、核心概念<a href="#二核心概念"><span>#</span></a></h2><section><h3>1. 费马引理<a href="#1-费马引理"><span>#</span></a></h3><p>若 <span><span>ff</span><span><span><span></span><span>f</span></span></span></span> 在 <span><span>x0x_0</span><span><span><span></span><span><span>x</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>0</span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span> 处<strong>可导</strong>，且 <span><span>x0x_0</span><span><span><span></span><span><span>x</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>0</span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span> 是<strong>极值点</strong>，则 <span><span>f′(x0)=0f'(x_0)=0</span><span><span><span></span><span><span>f</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span>′</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span>(</span><span><span>x</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>0</span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span>)</span><span></span><span>=</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>0</span></span></span></span>。</p><p>大白话：光滑曲线在山顶或谷底的切线是水平的。</p></section><section><h3>2. 罗尔定理<a href="#2-罗尔定理"><span>#</span></a></h3><p>若 <span><span>ff</span><span><span><span></span><span>f</span></span></span></span> 满足：</p><ol>
<li>在 <span><span>[a,b][a,b]</span><span><span><span></span><span>[</span><span>a</span><span>,</span><span></span><span>b</span><span>]</span></span></span></span> 上连续；</li>
<li>在 <span><span>(a,b)(a,b)</span><span><span><span></span><span>(</span><span>a</span><span>,</span><span></span><span>b</span><span>)</span></span></span></span> 内可导；</li>
<li><span><span>f(a)=f(b)f(a)=f(b)</span><span><span><span></span><span>f</span><span>(</span><span>a</span><span>)</span><span></span><span>=</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>f</span><span>(</span><span>b</span><span>)</span></span></span></span>，</li>
</ol><p>则存在 <span><span>ξ∈(a,b)\xi\in(a,b)</span><span><span><span></span><span>ξ</span><span></span><span>∈</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>(</span><span>a</span><span>,</span><span></span><span>b</span><span>)</span></span></span></span>，使 <span><span>f′(ξ)=0f'(\xi)=0</span><span><span><span></span><span><span>f</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span>′</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span>(</span><span>ξ</span><span>)</span><span></span><span>=</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>0</span></span></span></span>。</p></section><section><h3>3. 拉格朗日中值定理<a href="#3-拉格朗日中值定理"><span>#</span></a></h3><p>若 <span><span>ff</span><span><span><span></span><span>f</span></span></span></span> 在 <span><span>[a,b][a,b]</span><span><span><span></span><span>[</span><span>a</span><span>,</span><span></span><span>b</span><span>]</span></span></span></span> 上连续，在 <span><span>(a,b)(a,b)</span><span><span><span></span><span>(</span><span>a</span><span>,</span><span></span><span>b</span><span>)</span></span></span></span> 内可导，则存在 <span><span>ξ∈(a,b)\xi\in(a,b)</span><span><span><span></span><span>ξ</span><span></span><span>∈</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>(</span><span>a</span><span>,</span><span></span><span>b</span><span>)</span></span></span></span>，使</p><span><span><span>f(b)−f(a)=f′(ξ)(b−a).f(b)-f(a)=f'(\xi)(b-a).</span><span><span><span></span><span>f</span><span>(</span><span>b</span><span>)</span><span></span><span>−</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>f</span><span>(</span><span>a</span><span>)</span><span></span><span>=</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span>f</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span>′</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span>(</span><span>ξ</span><span>)</span><span>(</span><span>b</span><span></span><span>−</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>a</span><span>)</span><span>.</span></span></span></span></span><p>几何意义：曲线上一定有一点的切线<strong>平行于连接两端点的弦</strong>。</p><p>常用的等价写法：令 <span><span>ξ=a+θ(b−a)\xi=a+\theta(b-a)</span><span><span><span></span><span>ξ</span><span></span><span>=</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>a</span><span></span><span>+</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>θ</span><span>(</span><span>b</span><span></span><span>−</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>a</span><span>)</span></span></span></span>，<span><span>0&lt;θ&lt;10&lt;\theta&lt;1</span><span><span><span></span><span>0</span><span></span><span>&lt;</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>θ</span><span></span><span>&lt;</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>1</span></span></span></span>，则</p><span><span><span>f(b)−f(a)=f′(a+θ(b−a))(b−a).f(b)-f(a)=f'\bigl(a+\theta(b-a)\bigr)(b-a).</span><span><span><span></span><span>f</span><span>(</span><span>b</span><span>)</span><span></span><span>−</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>f</span><span>(</span><span>a</span><span>)</span><span></span><span>=</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span>f</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span>′</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span><span>(</span></span><span>a</span><span></span><span>+</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>θ</span><span>(</span><span>b</span><span></span><span>−</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>a</span><span>)</span><span><span>)</span></span><span>(</span><span>b</span><span></span><span>−</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>a</span><span>)</span><span>.</span></span></span></span></span></section><section><h3>4. 柯西中值定理<a href="#4-柯西中值定理"><span>#</span></a></h3><p>若 <span><span>f,gf,g</span><span><span><span></span><span>f</span><span>,</span><span></span><span>g</span></span></span></span> 在 <span><span>[a,b][a,b]</span><span><span><span></span><span>[</span><span>a</span><span>,</span><span></span><span>b</span><span>]</span></span></span></span> 上连续，在 <span><span>(a,b)(a,b)</span><span><span><span></span><span>(</span><span>a</span><span>,</span><span></span><span>b</span><span>)</span></span></span></span> 内可导，且 <span><span>g′(x)≠0g'(x)\ne0</span><span><span><span></span><span><span>g</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span>′</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span>(</span><span>x</span><span>)</span><span></span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span><span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span><span>=</span></span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>0</span></span></span></span>，则存在 <span><span>ξ∈(a,b)\xi\in(a,b)</span><span><span><span></span><span>ξ</span><span></span><span>∈</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>(</span><span>a</span><span>,</span><span></span><span>b</span><span>)</span></span></span></span>，使</p><span><span><span>f(b)−f(a)g(b)−g(a)=f′(ξ)g′(ξ).\frac{f(b)-f(a)}{g(b)-g(a)}=\frac{f'(\xi)}{g'(\xi)}.</span><span><span><span></span><span><span></span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>g</span><span>(</span><span>b</span><span>)</span><span></span><span>−</span><span></span><span>g</span><span>(</span><span>a</span><span>)</span></span></span><span><span></span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span>f</span><span>(</span><span>b</span><span>)</span><span></span><span>−</span><span></span><span>f</span><span>(</span><span>a</span><span>)</span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span></span><span></span><span>=</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span></span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span>g</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span>′</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span>(</span><span>ξ</span><span>)</span></span></span><span><span></span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span><span>f</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span>′</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span>(</span><span>ξ</span><span>)</span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span></span><span>.</span></span></span></span></span><p>取 <span><span>g(x)=xg(x)=x</span><span><span><span></span><span>g</span><span>(</span><span>x</span><span>)</span><span></span><span>=</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>x</span></span></span></span> 就是拉格朗日；拉格朗日中再加 <span><span>f(a)=f(b)f(a)=f(b)</span><span><span><span></span><span>f</span><span>(</span><span>a</span><span>)</span><span></span><span>=</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>f</span><span>(</span><span>b</span><span>)</span></span></span></span> 就是罗尔。所以三者是<strong>由特殊到一般</strong>的关系：</p><span><span><span>罗尔⊂拉格朗日⊂柯西.\text{罗尔}\subset\text{拉格朗日}\subset\text{柯西}.</span><span><span><span></span><span><span>罗尔</span></span><span></span><span>⊂</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span>拉格朗日</span></span><span></span><span>⊂</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span>柯西</span></span><span>.</span></span></span></span></span></section><section><h3>5. 两个推论<a href="#5-两个推论"><span>#</span></a></h3><ul>
<li>若在区间 <span><span>II</span><span><span><span></span><span>I</span></span></span></span> 上 <span><span>f′(x)≡0f'(x)\equiv0</span><span><span><span></span><span><span>f</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span>′</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span>(</span><span>x</span><span>)</span><span></span><span>≡</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>0</span></span></span></span>，则 <span><span>ff</span><span><span><span></span><span>f</span></span></span></span> 在 <span><span>II</span><span><span><span></span><span>I</span></span></span></span> 上是<strong>常数</strong>。</li>
<li>若在区间 <span><span>II</span><span><span><span></span><span>I</span></span></span></span> 上 <span><span>f′(x)≡g′(x)f'(x)\equiv g'(x)</span><span><span><span></span><span><span>f</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span>′</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span>(</span><span>x</span><span>)</span><span></span><span>≡</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span>g</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span>′</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span>(</span><span>x</span><span>)</span></span></span></span>，则 <span><span>f(x)=g(x)+Cf(x)=g(x)+C</span><span><span><span></span><span>f</span><span>(</span><span>x</span><span>)</span><span></span><span>=</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>g</span><span>(</span><span>x</span><span>)</span><span></span><span>+</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>C</span></span></span></span>。</li>
</ul></section><section><h3>6. 零点个数的结论<a href="#6-零点个数的结论"><span>#</span></a></h3><ul>
<li>若 <span><span>ff</span><span><span><span></span><span>f</span></span></span></span> 有 <span><span>nn</span><span><span><span></span><span>n</span></span></span></span> 个不同零点，则 <span><span>f′f'</span><span><span><span></span><span><span>f</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span>′</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span> 至少有 <span><span>n−1n-1</span><span><span><span></span><span>n</span><span></span><span>−</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>1</span></span></span></span> 个零点（相邻零点之间用罗尔）。</li>
<li>反过来，若 <span><span>f(n)(x)≠0f^{(n)}(x)\ne0</span><span><span><span></span><span><span>f</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span>(</span><span>n</span><span>)</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span>(</span><span>x</span><span>)</span><span></span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span><span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span><span>=</span></span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>0</span></span></span></span>，则 <span><span>ff</span><span><span><span></span><span>f</span></span></span></span> <strong>至多</strong>有 <span><span>nn</span><span><span><span></span><span>n</span></span></span></span> 个零点。</li>
</ul></section></section>
<section><h2>三、必背公式<a href="#三必背公式"><span>#</span></a></h2><div><div><div></div><div>三个定理的结论</div></div><div><p><span><span>罗尔：f′(ξ)=0拉格朗日：f(b)−f(a)b−a=f′(ξ)柯西：f(b)−f(a)g(b)−g(a)=f′(ξ)g′(ξ)\text{罗尔：}f'(\xi)=0\qquad\text{拉格朗日：}\frac{f(b)-f(a)}{b-a}=f'(\xi)\qquad\text{柯西：}\frac{f(b)-f(a)}{g(b)-g(a)}=\frac{f'(\xi)}{g'(\xi)}</span><span><span><span></span><span><span>罗尔：</span></span><span><span>f</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span>′</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span>(</span><span>ξ</span><span>)</span><span></span><span>=</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>0</span><span></span><span><span>拉格朗日：</span></span><span><span></span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span>b</span><span>−</span><span>a</span></span></span></span><span><span></span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span><span>f</span><span>(</span><span>b</span><span>)</span><span>−</span><span>f</span><span>(</span><span>a</span><span>)</span></span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span></span><span></span><span>=</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span>f</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span>′</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span>(</span><span>ξ</span><span>)</span><span></span><span><span>柯西：</span></span><span><span></span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span>g</span><span>(</span><span>b</span><span>)</span><span>−</span><span>g</span><span>(</span><span>a</span><span>)</span></span></span></span><span><span></span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span><span>f</span><span>(</span><span>b</span><span>)</span><span>−</span><span>f</span><span>(</span><span>a</span><span>)</span></span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span></span><span></span><span>=</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span></span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span><span>g</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span>′</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span>(</span><span>ξ</span><span>)</span></span></span></span><span><span></span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span><span><span>f</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span>′</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span>(</span><span>ξ</span><span>)</span></span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span></span></span></span></span>
条件统一记为：<strong>闭区间连续，开区间可导</strong>。罗尔再加端点值相等，柯西再加 <span><span>g′≠0g'\ne0</span><span><span><span></span><span><span>g</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span>′</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span><span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span><span>=</span></span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>0</span></span></span></span>。</p></div></div><div><div><div></div><div>常用辅助函数表</div></div><div>

<table><thead><tr><th>要证的结论</th><th>辅助函数 <span><span>F(x)F(x)</span><span><span><span></span><span>F</span><span>(</span><span>x</span><span>)</span></span></span></span></th></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td><span><span>f′(ξ)+λf(ξ)=0f'(\xi)+\lambda f(\xi)=0</span><span><span><span></span><span><span>f</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span>′</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span>(</span><span>ξ</span><span>)</span><span></span><span>+</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>λ</span><span>f</span><span>(</span><span>ξ</span><span>)</span><span></span><span>=</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>0</span></span></span></span></td><td><span><span>eλxf(x)e^{\lambda x}f(x)</span><span><span><span></span><span><span>e</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span>λ</span><span>x</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span>f</span><span>(</span><span>x</span><span>)</span></span></span></span></td></tr><tr><td><span><span>f′(ξ)+g′(ξ)f(ξ)=0f'(\xi)+g'(\xi)f(\xi)=0</span><span><span><span></span><span><span>f</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span>′</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span>(</span><span>ξ</span><span>)</span><span></span><span>+</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span>g</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span>′</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span>(</span><span>ξ</span><span>)</span><span>f</span><span>(</span><span>ξ</span><span>)</span><span></span><span>=</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>0</span></span></span></span></td><td><span><span>eg(x)f(x)e^{g(x)}f(x)</span><span><span><span></span><span><span>e</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span>g</span><span>(</span><span>x</span><span>)</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span>f</span><span>(</span><span>x</span><span>)</span></span></span></span></td></tr><tr><td><span><span>ξf′(ξ)+kf(ξ)=0\xi f'(\xi)+kf(\xi)=0</span><span><span><span></span><span>ξ</span><span><span>f</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span>′</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span>(</span><span>ξ</span><span>)</span><span></span><span>+</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>k</span><span>f</span><span>(</span><span>ξ</span><span>)</span><span></span><span>=</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>0</span></span></span></span></td><td><span><span>xkf(x)x^kf(x)</span><span><span><span></span><span><span>x</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>k</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span>f</span><span>(</span><span>x</span><span>)</span></span></span></span></td></tr><tr><td><span><span>f′(ξ)g(ξ)+f(ξ)g′(ξ)=0f'(\xi)g(\xi)+f(\xi)g'(\xi)=0</span><span><span><span></span><span><span>f</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span>′</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span>(</span><span>ξ</span><span>)</span><span>g</span><span>(</span><span>ξ</span><span>)</span><span></span><span>+</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>f</span><span>(</span><span>ξ</span><span>)</span><span><span>g</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span>′</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span>(</span><span>ξ</span><span>)</span><span></span><span>=</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>0</span></span></span></span></td><td><span><span>f(x)g(x)f(x)g(x)</span><span><span><span></span><span>f</span><span>(</span><span>x</span><span>)</span><span>g</span><span>(</span><span>x</span><span>)</span></span></span></span></td></tr><tr><td><span><span>f′(ξ)g(ξ)−f(ξ)g′(ξ)=0f'(\xi)g(\xi)-f(\xi)g'(\xi)=0</span><span><span><span></span><span><span>f</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span>′</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span>(</span><span>ξ</span><span>)</span><span>g</span><span>(</span><span>ξ</span><span>)</span><span></span><span>−</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>f</span><span>(</span><span>ξ</span><span>)</span><span><span>g</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span>′</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span>(</span><span>ξ</span><span>)</span><span></span><span>=</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>0</span></span></span></span></td><td><span><span>f(x)g(x)\dfrac{f(x)}{g(x)}</span><span><span><span></span><span><span></span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>g</span><span>(</span><span>x</span><span>)</span></span></span><span><span></span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span>f</span><span>(</span><span>x</span><span>)</span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span></span></span></span></span></td></tr><tr><td><span><span>f′(ξ)=kf'(\xi)=k</span><span><span><span></span><span><span>f</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span>′</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span>(</span><span>ξ</span><span>)</span><span></span><span>=</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>k</span></span></span></span></td><td><span><span>f(x)−kxf(x)-kx</span><span><span><span></span><span>f</span><span>(</span><span>x</span><span>)</span><span></span><span>−</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>k</span><span>x</span></span></span></span></td></tr><tr><td>多项式方程 <span><span>p(ξ)=0p(\xi)=0</span><span><span><span></span><span>p</span><span>(</span><span>ξ</span><span>)</span><span></span><span>=</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>0</span></span></span></span> 有根</td><td><span><span>pp</span><span><span><span></span><span>p</span></span></span></span> 的一个原函数</td></tr></tbody></table></div></div><p>最常用的是前三行，它们本质是同一件事：<strong>乘一个因子，让左边变成某个函数的导数</strong>。</p></section>
<section><h2>四、题型与解题套路<a href="#四题型与解题套路"><span>#</span></a></h2><section><h3>题型 1：直接用罗尔，证明 <span><span>f′(ξ)=0f'(\xi)=0</span><span><span><span></span><span><span>f</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span>′</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span>(</span><span>ξ</span><span>)</span><span></span><span>=</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>0</span></span></span></span><a href="#题型-1直接用罗尔证明-fξ0fxi0fξ0"><span>#</span></a></h3><p><strong>解法</strong>：找两个函数值相等的点。如果题目没直接给，常用<strong>介值定理</strong>或<strong>积分中值定理</strong>先造出一个点。</p><p><strong>例 1</strong> 设 <span><span>ff</span><span><span><span></span><span>f</span></span></span></span> 在 <span><span>[0,3][0,3]</span><span><span><span></span><span>[</span><span>0</span><span>,</span><span></span><span>3</span><span>]</span></span></span></span> 上连续，在 <span><span>(0,3)(0,3)</span><span><span><span></span><span>(</span><span>0</span><span>,</span><span></span><span>3</span><span>)</span></span></span></span> 内可导，且 <span><span>f(0)+f(1)+f(2)=3f(0)+f(1)+f(2)=3</span><span><span><span></span><span>f</span><span>(</span><span>0</span><span>)</span><span></span><span>+</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>f</span><span>(</span><span>1</span><span>)</span><span></span><span>+</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>f</span><span>(</span><span>2</span><span>)</span><span></span><span>=</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>3</span></span></span></span>，<span><span>f(3)=1f(3)=1</span><span><span><span></span><span>f</span><span>(</span><span>3</span><span>)</span><span></span><span>=</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>1</span></span></span></span>。证明存在 <span><span>ξ∈(0,3)\xi\in(0,3)</span><span><span><span></span><span>ξ</span><span></span><span>∈</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>(</span><span>0</span><span>,</span><span></span><span>3</span><span>)</span></span></span></span>，使 <span><span>f′(ξ)=0f'(\xi)=0</span><span><span><span></span><span><span>f</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span>′</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span>(</span><span>ξ</span><span>)</span><span></span><span>=</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>0</span></span></span></span>。</p><p><strong>证</strong> 已有 <span><span>f(3)=1f(3)=1</span><span><span><span></span><span>f</span><span>(</span><span>3</span><span>)</span><span></span><span>=</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>1</span></span></span></span>，只需在 <span><span>[0,2][0,2]</span><span><span><span></span><span>[</span><span>0</span><span>,</span><span></span><span>2</span><span>]</span></span></span></span> 上再找一个点 <span><span>cc</span><span><span><span></span><span>c</span></span></span></span> 使 <span><span>f(c)=1f(c)=1</span><span><span><span></span><span>f</span><span>(</span><span>c</span><span>)</span><span></span><span>=</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>1</span></span></span></span>。</p><p><span><span>ff</span><span><span><span></span><span>f</span></span></span></span> 在 <span><span>[0,2][0,2]</span><span><span><span></span><span>[</span><span>0</span><span>,</span><span></span><span>2</span><span>]</span></span></span></span> 上连续，有最大值 <span><span>MM</span><span><span><span></span><span>M</span></span></span></span> 和最小值 <span><span>mm</span><span><span><span></span><span>m</span></span></span></span>，于是</p><span><span><span>m≤f(0)+f(1)+f(2)3=1≤M.m\le\frac{f(0)+f(1)+f(2)}{3}=1\le M.</span><span><span><span></span><span>m</span><span></span><span>≤</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span></span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>3</span></span></span><span><span></span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span>f</span><span>(</span><span>0</span><span>)</span><span></span><span>+</span><span></span><span>f</span><span>(</span><span>1</span><span>)</span><span></span><span>+</span><span></span><span>f</span><span>(</span><span>2</span><span>)</span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span></span><span></span><span>=</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>1</span><span></span><span>≤</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>M</span><span>.</span></span></span></span></span><p>由介值定理，存在 <span><span>c∈[0,2]c\in[0,2]</span><span><span><span></span><span>c</span><span></span><span>∈</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>[</span><span>0</span><span>,</span><span></span><span>2</span><span>]</span></span></span></span> 使 <span><span>f(c)=1=f(3)f(c)=1=f(3)</span><span><span><span></span><span>f</span><span>(</span><span>c</span><span>)</span><span></span><span>=</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>1</span><span></span><span>=</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>f</span><span>(</span><span>3</span><span>)</span></span></span></span>。在 <span><span>[c,3][c,3]</span><span><span><span></span><span>[</span><span>c</span><span>,</span><span></span><span>3</span><span>]</span></span></span></span> 上用罗尔，存在 <span><span>ξ∈(c,3)⊂(0,3)\xi\in(c,3)\subset(0,3)</span><span><span><span></span><span>ξ</span><span></span><span>∈</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>(</span><span>c</span><span>,</span><span></span><span>3</span><span>)</span><span></span><span>⊂</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>(</span><span>0</span><span>,</span><span></span><span>3</span><span>)</span></span></span></span>，使 <span><span>f′(ξ)=0f'(\xi)=0</span><span><span><span></span><span><span>f</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span>′</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span>(</span><span>ξ</span><span>)</span><span></span><span>=</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>0</span></span></span></span>。</p><div><div><div></div><div>平均值套路</div></div><div><p>看到“几个函数值之和等于某个数”，就用<strong>最值 + 介值定理</strong>：平均值一定夹在最小值和最大值之间。</p></div></div></section><section><h3>题型 2：构造辅助函数（还原法）<a href="#题型-2构造辅助函数还原法"><span>#</span></a></h3><p><strong>识别特征</strong>：结论是“存在 <span><span>ξ\xi</span><span><span><span></span><span>ξ</span></span></span></span>，使含 <span><span>f(ξ)f(\xi)</span><span><span><span></span><span>f</span><span>(</span><span>ξ</span><span>)</span></span></span></span>、<span><span>f′(ξ)f'(\xi)</span><span><span><span></span><span><span>f</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span>′</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span>(</span><span>ξ</span><span>)</span></span></span></span> 的式子等于 <span><span>00</span><span><span><span></span><span>0</span></span></span></span>”。</p><p><strong>解法步骤（还原法）</strong>：</p><ol>
<li>把 <span><span>ξ\xi</span><span><span><span></span><span>ξ</span></span></span></span> 换成 <span><span>xx</span><span><span><span></span><span>x</span></span></span></span>，得到一个关于 <span><span>f,f′f,f'</span><span><span><span></span><span>f</span><span>,</span><span></span><span><span>f</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span>′</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span> 的等式；</li>
<li>把它看成微分方程，<strong>解出来写成 <span><span>F(x)=CF(x)=C</span><span><span><span></span><span>F</span><span>(</span><span>x</span><span>)</span><span></span><span>=</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>C</span></span></span></span> 的形式</strong>，这个 <span><span>FF</span><span><span><span></span><span>F</span></span></span></span> 就是辅助函数；</li>
<li>验证 <span><span>FF</span><span><span><span></span><span>F</span></span></span></span> 在区间两端的值相等，用罗尔。</li>
</ol><p><strong>例 2</strong> 设 <span><span>ff</span><span><span><span></span><span>f</span></span></span></span> 在 <span><span>[0,1][0,1]</span><span><span><span></span><span>[</span><span>0</span><span>,</span><span></span><span>1</span><span>]</span></span></span></span> 上连续，在 <span><span>(0,1)(0,1)</span><span><span><span></span><span>(</span><span>0</span><span>,</span><span></span><span>1</span><span>)</span></span></span></span> 内可导，且 <span><span>f(1)=0f(1)=0</span><span><span><span></span><span>f</span><span>(</span><span>1</span><span>)</span><span></span><span>=</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>0</span></span></span></span>。证明存在 <span><span>ξ∈(0,1)\xi\in(0,1)</span><span><span><span></span><span>ξ</span><span></span><span>∈</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>(</span><span>0</span><span>,</span><span></span><span>1</span><span>)</span></span></span></span>，使</p><span><span><span>ξf′(ξ)+2f(ξ)=0.\xi f'(\xi)+2f(\xi)=0.</span><span><span><span></span><span>ξ</span><span><span>f</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span>′</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span>(</span><span>ξ</span><span>)</span><span></span><span>+</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>2</span><span>f</span><span>(</span><span>ξ</span><span>)</span><span></span><span>=</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>0.</span></span></span></span></span><p><strong>分析</strong> 还原：<span><span>xf′(x)+2f(x)=0xf'(x)+2f(x)=0</span><span><span><span></span><span>x</span><span><span>f</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span>′</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span>(</span><span>x</span><span>)</span><span></span><span>+</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>2</span><span>f</span><span>(</span><span>x</span><span>)</span><span></span><span>=</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>0</span></span></span></span>。两边乘 <span><span>xx</span><span><span><span></span><span>x</span></span></span></span> 得 <span><span>x2f′(x)+2xf(x)=0x^2f'(x)+2xf(x)=0</span><span><span><span></span><span><span>x</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>2</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span><span>f</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span>′</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span>(</span><span>x</span><span>)</span><span></span><span>+</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>2</span><span>x</span><span>f</span><span>(</span><span>x</span><span>)</span><span></span><span>=</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>0</span></span></span></span>，即 <span><span>(x2f(x))′=0\bigl(x^2f(x)\bigr)'=0</span><span><span><span></span><span><span>(</span></span><span><span>x</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>2</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span>f</span><span>(</span><span>x</span><span>)</span><span><span><span>)</span></span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span>′</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span><span>=</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>0</span></span></span></span>。所以取 <span><span>F(x)=x2f(x)F(x)=x^2f(x)</span><span><span><span></span><span>F</span><span>(</span><span>x</span><span>)</span><span></span><span>=</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span>x</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>2</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span>f</span><span>(</span><span>x</span><span>)</span></span></span></span>。</p><p><strong>证</strong> 令 <span><span>F(x)=x2f(x)F(x)=x^2f(x)</span><span><span><span></span><span>F</span><span>(</span><span>x</span><span>)</span><span></span><span>=</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span>x</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>2</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span>f</span><span>(</span><span>x</span><span>)</span></span></span></span>，则 <span><span>F(0)=0F(0)=0</span><span><span><span></span><span>F</span><span>(</span><span>0</span><span>)</span><span></span><span>=</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>0</span></span></span></span>，<span><span>F(1)=f(1)=0F(1)=f(1)=0</span><span><span><span></span><span>F</span><span>(</span><span>1</span><span>)</span><span></span><span>=</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>f</span><span>(</span><span>1</span><span>)</span><span></span><span>=</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>0</span></span></span></span>。由罗尔，存在 <span><span>ξ∈(0,1)\xi\in(0,1)</span><span><span><span></span><span>ξ</span><span></span><span>∈</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>(</span><span>0</span><span>,</span><span></span><span>1</span><span>)</span></span></span></span>，使</p><span><span><span>F′(ξ)=2ξf(ξ)+ξ2f′(ξ)=ξ[2f(ξ)+ξf′(ξ)]=0.F'(\xi)=2\xi f(\xi)+\xi^2f'(\xi)=\xi\bigl[2f(\xi)+\xi f'(\xi)\bigr]=0.</span><span><span><span></span><span><span>F</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span>′</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span>(</span><span>ξ</span><span>)</span><span></span><span>=</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>2</span><span>ξ</span><span>f</span><span>(</span><span>ξ</span><span>)</span><span></span><span>+</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span>ξ</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>2</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span><span>f</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span>′</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span>(</span><span>ξ</span><span>)</span><span></span><span>=</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>ξ</span><span><span>[</span></span><span>2</span><span>f</span><span>(</span><span>ξ</span><span>)</span><span></span><span>+</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>ξ</span><span><span>f</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span>′</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span>(</span><span>ξ</span><span>)</span><span><span>]</span></span><span></span><span>=</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>0.</span></span></span></span></span><p>因为 <span><span>ξ≠0\xi\ne0</span><span><span><span></span><span>ξ</span><span></span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span><span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span><span>=</span></span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>0</span></span></span></span>，所以 <span><span>ξf′(ξ)+2f(ξ)=0\xi f'(\xi)+2f(\xi)=0</span><span><span><span></span><span>ξ</span><span><span>f</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span>′</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span>(</span><span>ξ</span><span>)</span><span></span><span>+</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>2</span><span>f</span><span>(</span><span>ξ</span><span>)</span><span></span><span>=</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>0</span></span></span></span>。</p><p><strong>例 3</strong> 设 <span><span>ff</span><span><span><span></span><span>f</span></span></span></span> 在 <span><span>[0,1][0,1]</span><span><span><span></span><span>[</span><span>0</span><span>,</span><span></span><span>1</span><span>]</span></span></span></span> 上连续，在 <span><span>(0,1)(0,1)</span><span><span><span></span><span>(</span><span>0</span><span>,</span><span></span><span>1</span><span>)</span></span></span></span> 内可导，<span><span>f(0)=f(1)=0f(0)=f(1)=0</span><span><span><span></span><span>f</span><span>(</span><span>0</span><span>)</span><span></span><span>=</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>f</span><span>(</span><span>1</span><span>)</span><span></span><span>=</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>0</span></span></span></span>，<span><span>f(12)=1f\left(\frac12\right)=1</span><span><span><span></span><span>f</span><span></span><span><span><span>(</span></span><span><span></span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span>2</span></span></span></span><span><span></span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span><span>1</span></span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span></span><span><span>)</span></span></span><span></span><span>=</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>1</span></span></span></span>。证明：</p><ol>
<li>存在 <span><span>η∈(12,1)\eta\in\left(\frac12,1\right)</span><span><span><span></span><span>η</span><span></span><span>∈</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span><span>(</span></span><span><span></span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span>2</span></span></span></span><span><span></span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span><span>1</span></span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span></span><span>,</span><span></span><span>1</span><span><span>)</span></span></span></span></span></span>，使 <span><span>f(η)=ηf(\eta)=\eta</span><span><span><span></span><span>f</span><span>(</span><span>η</span><span>)</span><span></span><span>=</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>η</span></span></span></span>；</li>
<li>对任意实数 <span><span>λ\lambda</span><span><span><span></span><span>λ</span></span></span></span>，存在 <span><span>ξ∈(0,η)\xi\in(0,\eta)</span><span><span><span></span><span>ξ</span><span></span><span>∈</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>(</span><span>0</span><span>,</span><span></span><span>η</span><span>)</span></span></span></span>，使 <span><span>f′(ξ)−λ[f(ξ)−ξ]=1f'(\xi)-\lambda\bigl[f(\xi)-\xi\bigr]=1</span><span><span><span></span><span><span>f</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span>′</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span>(</span><span>ξ</span><span>)</span><span></span><span>−</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>λ</span><span><span>[</span></span><span>f</span><span>(</span><span>ξ</span><span>)</span><span></span><span>−</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>ξ</span><span><span>]</span></span><span></span><span>=</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>1</span></span></span></span>。</li>
</ol><p><strong>证</strong> (1) 令 <span><span>φ(x)=f(x)−x\varphi(x)=f(x)-x</span><span><span><span></span><span>φ</span><span>(</span><span>x</span><span>)</span><span></span><span>=</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>f</span><span>(</span><span>x</span><span>)</span><span></span><span>−</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>x</span></span></span></span>。<span><span>φ(12)=12&gt;0\varphi\left(\frac12\right)=\frac12&gt;0</span><span><span><span></span><span>φ</span><span></span><span><span><span>(</span></span><span><span></span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span>2</span></span></span></span><span><span></span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span><span>1</span></span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span></span><span><span>)</span></span></span><span></span><span>=</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span></span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span>2</span></span></span></span><span><span></span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span><span>1</span></span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span></span><span></span><span>&gt;</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>0</span></span></span></span>，<span><span>φ(1)=−1&lt;0\varphi(1)=-1&lt;0</span><span><span><span></span><span>φ</span><span>(</span><span>1</span><span>)</span><span></span><span>=</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>−</span><span>1</span><span></span><span>&lt;</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>0</span></span></span></span>，由零点定理，存在 <span><span>η∈(12,1)\eta\in\left(\frac12,1\right)</span><span><span><span></span><span>η</span><span></span><span>∈</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span><span>(</span></span><span><span></span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span>2</span></span></span></span><span><span></span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span><span>1</span></span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span></span><span>,</span><span></span><span>1</span><span><span>)</span></span></span></span></span></span> 使 <span><span>φ(η)=0\varphi(\eta)=0</span><span><span><span></span><span>φ</span><span>(</span><span>η</span><span>)</span><span></span><span>=</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>0</span></span></span></span>，即 <span><span>f(η)=ηf(\eta)=\eta</span><span><span><span></span><span>f</span><span>(</span><span>η</span><span>)</span><span></span><span>=</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>η</span></span></span></span>。</p><p>(2) 把结论改写为 <span><span>[f′(ξ)−1]−λ[f(ξ)−ξ]=0\bigl[f'(\xi)-1\bigr]-\lambda\bigl[f(\xi)-\xi\bigr]=0</span><span><span><span></span><span><span>[</span></span><span><span>f</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span>′</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span>(</span><span>ξ</span><span>)</span><span></span><span>−</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>1</span><span><span>]</span></span><span></span><span>−</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>λ</span><span><span>[</span></span><span>f</span><span>(</span><span>ξ</span><span>)</span><span></span><span>−</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>ξ</span><span><span>]</span></span><span></span><span>=</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>0</span></span></span></span>，即 <span><span>φ′(ξ)−λφ(ξ)=0\varphi'(\xi)-\lambda\varphi(\xi)=0</span><span><span><span></span><span><span>φ</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span>′</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span>(</span><span>ξ</span><span>)</span><span></span><span>−</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>λ</span><span>φ</span><span>(</span><span>ξ</span><span>)</span><span></span><span>=</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>0</span></span></span></span>。</p><p>这是辅助函数表第一行（<span><span>λ\lambda</span><span><span><span></span><span>λ</span></span></span></span> 换成 <span><span>−λ-\lambda</span><span><span><span></span><span>−</span><span>λ</span></span></span></span>），取 <span><span>F(x)=e−λxφ(x)=e−λx[f(x)−x]F(x)=e^{-\lambda x}\varphi(x)=e^{-\lambda x}\bigl[f(x)-x\bigr]</span><span><span><span></span><span>F</span><span>(</span><span>x</span><span>)</span><span></span><span>=</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span>e</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span>−</span><span>λ</span><span>x</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span>φ</span><span>(</span><span>x</span><span>)</span><span></span><span>=</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span>e</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span>−</span><span>λ</span><span>x</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span><span>[</span></span><span>f</span><span>(</span><span>x</span><span>)</span><span></span><span>−</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>x</span><span><span>]</span></span></span></span></span>。</p><p><span><span>F(0)=0F(0)=0</span><span><span><span></span><span>F</span><span>(</span><span>0</span><span>)</span><span></span><span>=</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>0</span></span></span></span>，<span><span>F(η)=e−ληφ(η)=0F(\eta)=e^{-\lambda\eta}\varphi(\eta)=0</span><span><span><span></span><span>F</span><span>(</span><span>η</span><span>)</span><span></span><span>=</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span>e</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span>−</span><span>λ</span><span>η</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span>φ</span><span>(</span><span>η</span><span>)</span><span></span><span>=</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>0</span></span></span></span>。由罗尔，存在 <span><span>ξ∈(0,η)\xi\in(0,\eta)</span><span><span><span></span><span>ξ</span><span></span><span>∈</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>(</span><span>0</span><span>,</span><span></span><span>η</span><span>)</span></span></span></span>，使</p><span><span><span>F′(ξ)=e−λξ[φ′(ξ)−λφ(ξ)]=0.F'(\xi)=e^{-\lambda\xi}\bigl[\varphi'(\xi)-\lambda\varphi(\xi)\bigr]=0.</span><span><span><span></span><span><span>F</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span>′</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span>(</span><span>ξ</span><span>)</span><span></span><span>=</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span>e</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span>−</span><span>λ</span><span>ξ</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span><span>[</span></span><span><span>φ</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span>′</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span>(</span><span>ξ</span><span>)</span><span></span><span>−</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>λ</span><span>φ</span><span>(</span><span>ξ</span><span>)</span><span><span>]</span></span><span></span><span>=</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>0.</span></span></span></span></span><p><span><span>e−λξ≠0e^{-\lambda\xi}\ne0</span><span><span><span></span><span><span>e</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span>−</span><span>λ</span><span>ξ</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span><span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span><span>=</span></span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>0</span></span></span></span>，所以 <span><span>f′(ξ)−1−λ[f(ξ)−ξ]=0f'(\xi)-1-\lambda\bigl[f(\xi)-\xi\bigr]=0</span><span><span><span></span><span><span>f</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span>′</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span>(</span><span>ξ</span><span>)</span><span></span><span>−</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>1</span><span></span><span>−</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>λ</span><span><span>[</span></span><span>f</span><span>(</span><span>ξ</span><span>)</span><span></span><span>−</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>ξ</span><span><span>]</span></span><span></span><span>=</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>0</span></span></span></span>，得证。</p><div><div><div></div><div>第 (1) 问通常是第 (2) 问的铺垫</div></div><div><p>第 (1) 问找到的 <span><span>η\eta</span><span><span><span></span><span>η</span></span></span></span>，往往就是第 (2) 问罗尔定理要用的一个端点。</p></div></div></section><section><h3>题型 3：多项式方程有根（原函数法）<a href="#题型-3多项式方程有根原函数法"><span>#</span></a></h3><p><strong>识别特征</strong>：证明某个方程在区间内有根，直接用零点定理找不到异号的点。</p><p><strong>解法</strong>：把方程左边看成某个函数的导数，<strong>取原函数作辅助函数</strong>，用罗尔。</p><p><strong>例 4</strong> 设 <span><span>a+b+c=0a+b+c=0</span><span><span><span></span><span>a</span><span></span><span>+</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>b</span><span></span><span>+</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>c</span><span></span><span>=</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>0</span></span></span></span>。证明方程 <span><span>3ax2+2bx+c=03ax^2+2bx+c=0</span><span><span><span></span><span>3</span><span>a</span><span><span>x</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>2</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span><span>+</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>2</span><span>b</span><span>x</span><span></span><span>+</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>c</span><span></span><span>=</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>0</span></span></span></span> 在 <span><span>(0,1)(0,1)</span><span><span><span></span><span>(</span><span>0</span><span>,</span><span></span><span>1</span><span>)</span></span></span></span> 内至少有一个根。</p><p><strong>证</strong> <span><span>3ax2+2bx+c3ax^2+2bx+c</span><span><span><span></span><span>3</span><span>a</span><span><span>x</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>2</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span><span>+</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>2</span><span>b</span><span>x</span><span></span><span>+</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>c</span></span></span></span> 的一个原函数是 <span><span>F(x)=ax3+bx2+cxF(x)=ax^3+bx^2+cx</span><span><span><span></span><span>F</span><span>(</span><span>x</span><span>)</span><span></span><span>=</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>a</span><span><span>x</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>3</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span><span>+</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>b</span><span><span>x</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>2</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span><span>+</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>c</span><span>x</span></span></span></span>。</p><p><span><span>F(0)=0F(0)=0</span><span><span><span></span><span>F</span><span>(</span><span>0</span><span>)</span><span></span><span>=</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>0</span></span></span></span>，<span><span>F(1)=a+b+c=0F(1)=a+b+c=0</span><span><span><span></span><span>F</span><span>(</span><span>1</span><span>)</span><span></span><span>=</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>a</span><span></span><span>+</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>b</span><span></span><span>+</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>c</span><span></span><span>=</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>0</span></span></span></span>。由罗尔，存在 <span><span>ξ∈(0,1)\xi\in(0,1)</span><span><span><span></span><span>ξ</span><span></span><span>∈</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>(</span><span>0</span><span>,</span><span></span><span>1</span><span>)</span></span></span></span>，使 <span><span>F′(ξ)=3aξ2+2bξ+c=0F'(\xi)=3a\xi^2+2b\xi+c=0</span><span><span><span></span><span><span>F</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span>′</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span>(</span><span>ξ</span><span>)</span><span></span><span>=</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>3</span><span>a</span><span><span>ξ</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>2</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span><span>+</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>2</span><span>b</span><span>ξ</span><span></span><span>+</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>c</span><span></span><span>=</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>0</span></span></span></span>。</p></section><section><h3>题型 4：多次用罗尔，证明高阶导数有零点<a href="#题型-4多次用罗尔证明高阶导数有零点"><span>#</span></a></h3><p><strong>解法</strong>：先找 <span><span>ff</span><span><span><span></span><span>f</span></span></span></span> 的零点（或相等的函数值），用罗尔得到 <span><span>f′f'</span><span><span><span></span><span><span>f</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span>′</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span> 的零点，再对 <span><span>f′f'</span><span><span><span></span><span><span>f</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span>′</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span> 用罗尔，逐阶往上推。</p><p><strong>例 5</strong> 设 <span><span>ff</span><span><span><span></span><span>f</span></span></span></span> 在 <span><span>[0,3][0,3]</span><span><span><span></span><span>[</span><span>0</span><span>,</span><span></span><span>3</span><span>]</span></span></span></span> 上二阶可导，且 <span><span>f(0)=f(1)=f(3)=0f(0)=f(1)=f(3)=0</span><span><span><span></span><span>f</span><span>(</span><span>0</span><span>)</span><span></span><span>=</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>f</span><span>(</span><span>1</span><span>)</span><span></span><span>=</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>f</span><span>(</span><span>3</span><span>)</span><span></span><span>=</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>0</span></span></span></span>。证明存在 <span><span>ξ∈(0,3)\xi\in(0,3)</span><span><span><span></span><span>ξ</span><span></span><span>∈</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>(</span><span>0</span><span>,</span><span></span><span>3</span><span>)</span></span></span></span>，使 <span><span>f′′(ξ)=0f''(\xi)=0</span><span><span><span></span><span><span>f</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span>′′</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span>(</span><span>ξ</span><span>)</span><span></span><span>=</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>0</span></span></span></span>。</p><p><strong>证</strong> 在 <span><span>[0,1][0,1]</span><span><span><span></span><span>[</span><span>0</span><span>,</span><span></span><span>1</span><span>]</span></span></span></span> 和 <span><span>[1,3][1,3]</span><span><span><span></span><span>[</span><span>1</span><span>,</span><span></span><span>3</span><span>]</span></span></span></span> 上分别用罗尔，得 <span><span>ξ1∈(0,1)\xi_1\in(0,1)</span><span><span><span></span><span><span>ξ</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>1</span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span><span>∈</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>(</span><span>0</span><span>,</span><span></span><span>1</span><span>)</span></span></span></span>，<span><span>ξ2∈(1,3)\xi_2\in(1,3)</span><span><span><span></span><span><span>ξ</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>2</span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span><span>∈</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>(</span><span>1</span><span>,</span><span></span><span>3</span><span>)</span></span></span></span>，使 <span><span>f′(ξ1)=f′(ξ2)=0f'(\xi_1)=f'(\xi_2)=0</span><span><span><span></span><span><span>f</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span>′</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span>(</span><span><span>ξ</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>1</span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span>)</span><span></span><span>=</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span>f</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span>′</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span>(</span><span><span>ξ</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>2</span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span>)</span><span></span><span>=</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>0</span></span></span></span>。</p><p>再对 <span><span>f′f'</span><span><span><span></span><span><span>f</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span>′</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span> 在 <span><span>[ξ1,ξ2][\xi_1,\xi_2]</span><span><span><span></span><span>[</span><span><span>ξ</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>1</span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span>,</span><span></span><span><span>ξ</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>2</span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span>]</span></span></span></span> 上用罗尔，得 <span><span>ξ∈(ξ1,ξ2)⊂(0,3)\xi\in(\xi_1,\xi_2)\subset(0,3)</span><span><span><span></span><span>ξ</span><span></span><span>∈</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>(</span><span><span>ξ</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>1</span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span>,</span><span></span><span><span>ξ</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>2</span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span>)</span><span></span><span>⊂</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>(</span><span>0</span><span>,</span><span></span><span>3</span><span>)</span></span></span></span>，使 <span><span>f′′(ξ)=0f''(\xi)=0</span><span><span><span></span><span><span>f</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span>′′</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span>(</span><span>ξ</span><span>)</span><span></span><span>=</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>0</span></span></span></span>。</p><p><strong>例 6</strong> 求 <span><span>f(x)=x(x−1)(x−2)(x−3)f(x)=x(x-1)(x-2)(x-3)</span><span><span><span></span><span>f</span><span>(</span><span>x</span><span>)</span><span></span><span>=</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>x</span><span>(</span><span>x</span><span></span><span>−</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>1</span><span>)</span><span>(</span><span>x</span><span></span><span>−</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>2</span><span>)</span><span>(</span><span>x</span><span></span><span>−</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>3</span><span>)</span></span></span></span> 的导函数 <span><span>f′(x)=0f'(x)=0</span><span><span><span></span><span><span>f</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span>′</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span>(</span><span>x</span><span>)</span><span></span><span>=</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>0</span></span></span></span> 的实根个数。</p><p><strong>解</strong> <span><span>ff</span><span><span><span></span><span>f</span></span></span></span> 有 4 个零点 <span><span>0,1,2,30,1,2,3</span><span><span><span></span><span>0</span><span>,</span><span></span><span>1</span><span>,</span><span></span><span>2</span><span>,</span><span></span><span>3</span></span></span></span>。在 <span><span>[0,1][0,1]</span><span><span><span></span><span>[</span><span>0</span><span>,</span><span></span><span>1</span><span>]</span></span></span></span>、<span><span>[1,2][1,2]</span><span><span><span></span><span>[</span><span>1</span><span>,</span><span></span><span>2</span><span>]</span></span></span></span>、<span><span>[2,3][2,3]</span><span><span><span></span><span>[</span><span>2</span><span>,</span><span></span><span>3</span><span>]</span></span></span></span> 上分别用罗尔，<span><span>f′f'</span><span><span><span></span><span><span>f</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span>′</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span> 至少有 3 个根。</p><p>又 <span><span>f′f'</span><span><span><span></span><span><span>f</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span>′</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span> 是三次多项式，至多 3 个根。所以 <span><span>f′(x)=0f'(x)=0</span><span><span><span></span><span><span>f</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span>′</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span>(</span><span>x</span><span>)</span><span></span><span>=</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>0</span></span></span></span> 恰有 <span><span>3\boxed3</span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span><span>3</span></span></span></span></span><span><span></span><span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span> 个实根。</p></section><section><h3>题型 5：结论中含 <span><span>a,ba,b</span><span><span><span></span><span>a</span><span>,</span><span></span><span>b</span></span></span></span>（拉格朗日或柯西）<a href="#题型-5结论中含-ababab拉格朗日或柯西"><span>#</span></a></h3><p><strong>识别特征</strong>：结论里只有一个 <span><span>ξ\xi</span><span><span><span></span><span>ξ</span></span></span></span>，但同时出现 <span><span>f(a)f(a)</span><span><span><span></span><span>f</span><span>(</span><span>a</span><span>)</span></span></span></span>、<span><span>f(b)f(b)</span><span><span><span></span><span>f</span><span>(</span><span>b</span><span>)</span></span></span></span> 或 <span><span>a,ba,b</span><span><span><span></span><span>a</span><span>,</span><span></span><span>b</span></span></span></span>。</p><p><strong>解法</strong>：</p><ol>
<li>把含 <span><span>ξ\xi</span><span><span><span></span><span>ξ</span></span></span></span> 的部分移到一边，含 <span><span>a,ba,b</span><span><span><span></span><span>a</span><span>,</span><span></span><span>b</span></span></span></span> 的部分移到另一边；</li>
<li>若 <span><span>a,ba,b</span><span><span><span></span><span>a</span><span>,</span><span></span><span>b</span></span></span></span> 一边能写成 <span><span>f(b)−f(a)b−a\dfrac{f(b)-f(a)}{b-a}</span><span><span><span></span><span><span></span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>b</span><span></span><span>−</span><span></span><span>a</span></span></span><span><span></span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span>f</span><span>(</span><span>b</span><span>)</span><span></span><span>−</span><span></span><span>f</span><span>(</span><span>a</span><span>)</span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span></span></span></span></span>，用拉格朗日；</li>
<li>若能写成 <span><span>f(b)−f(a)g(b)−g(a)\dfrac{f(b)-f(a)}{g(b)-g(a)}</span><span><span><span></span><span><span></span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>g</span><span>(</span><span>b</span><span>)</span><span></span><span>−</span><span></span><span>g</span><span>(</span><span>a</span><span>)</span></span></span><span><span></span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span>f</span><span>(</span><span>b</span><span>)</span><span></span><span>−</span><span></span><span>f</span><span>(</span><span>a</span><span>)</span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span></span></span></span></span>，用柯西，关键是<strong>认出 <span><span>gg</span><span><span><span></span><span>g</span></span></span></span></strong>。</li>
</ol><p><strong>例 7</strong> 设 <span><span>0&lt;a&lt;b0&lt;a&lt;b</span><span><span><span></span><span>0</span><span></span><span>&lt;</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>a</span><span></span><span>&lt;</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>b</span></span></span></span>，<span><span>ff</span><span><span><span></span><span>f</span></span></span></span> 在 <span><span>[a,b][a,b]</span><span><span><span></span><span>[</span><span>a</span><span>,</span><span></span><span>b</span><span>]</span></span></span></span> 上连续，在 <span><span>(a,b)(a,b)</span><span><span><span></span><span>(</span><span>a</span><span>,</span><span></span><span>b</span><span>)</span></span></span></span> 内可导。证明存在 <span><span>ξ∈(a,b)\xi\in(a,b)</span><span><span><span></span><span>ξ</span><span></span><span>∈</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>(</span><span>a</span><span>,</span><span></span><span>b</span><span>)</span></span></span></span>，使</p><span><span><span>f(b)−f(a)=ξf′(ξ)ln⁡ba.f(b)-f(a)=\xi f'(\xi)\ln\frac ba.</span><span><span><span></span><span>f</span><span>(</span><span>b</span><span>)</span><span></span><span>−</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>f</span><span>(</span><span>a</span><span>)</span><span></span><span>=</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>ξ</span><span><span>f</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span>′</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span>(</span><span>ξ</span><span>)</span><span></span><span>ln</span><span></span><span><span></span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>a</span></span></span><span><span></span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span>b</span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span></span><span>.</span></span></span></span></span><p><strong>分析</strong> 分离：<span><span>f(b)−f(a)ln⁡b−ln⁡a=ξf′(ξ)=f′(ξ)1/ξ\dfrac{f(b)-f(a)}{\ln b-\ln a}=\xi f'(\xi)=\dfrac{f'(\xi)}{1/\xi}</span><span><span><span></span><span><span></span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>ln</span><span></span><span>b</span><span></span><span>−</span><span></span><span>ln</span><span></span><span>a</span></span></span><span><span></span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span>f</span><span>(</span><span>b</span><span>)</span><span></span><span>−</span><span></span><span>f</span><span>(</span><span>a</span><span>)</span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span></span><span></span><span>=</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>ξ</span><span><span>f</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span>′</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span>(</span><span>ξ</span><span>)</span><span></span><span>=</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span></span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>1/</span><span>ξ</span></span></span><span><span></span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span><span>f</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span>′</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span>(</span><span>ξ</span><span>)</span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span></span></span></span></span>。右边正是 <span><span>f′f'</span><span><span><span></span><span><span>f</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span>′</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span> 除以 <span><span>(ln⁡x)′(\ln x)'</span><span><span><span></span><span>(</span><span>ln</span><span></span><span>x</span><span><span>)</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span>′</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span>，所以 <span><span>g(x)=ln⁡xg(x)=\ln x</span><span><span><span></span><span>g</span><span>(</span><span>x</span><span>)</span><span></span><span>=</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>ln</span><span></span><span>x</span></span></span></span>。</p><p><strong>证</strong> 取 <span><span>g(x)=ln⁡xg(x)=\ln x</span><span><span><span></span><span>g</span><span>(</span><span>x</span><span>)</span><span></span><span>=</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>ln</span><span></span><span>x</span></span></span></span>，在 <span><span>[a,b][a,b]</span><span><span><span></span><span>[</span><span>a</span><span>,</span><span></span><span>b</span><span>]</span></span></span></span> 上 <span><span>g′(x)=1x≠0g'(x)=\frac1x\ne0</span><span><span><span></span><span><span>g</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span>′</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span>(</span><span>x</span><span>)</span><span></span><span>=</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span></span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span>x</span></span></span></span><span><span></span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span><span>1</span></span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span></span><span></span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span><span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span><span>=</span></span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>0</span></span></span></span>。由柯西中值定理，存在 <span><span>ξ∈(a,b)\xi\in(a,b)</span><span><span><span></span><span>ξ</span><span></span><span>∈</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>(</span><span>a</span><span>,</span><span></span><span>b</span><span>)</span></span></span></span>，使</p><span><span><span>f(b)−f(a)ln⁡b−ln⁡a=f′(ξ)1/ξ=ξf′(ξ),\frac{f(b)-f(a)}{\ln b-\ln a}=\frac{f'(\xi)}{1/\xi}=\xi f'(\xi),</span><span><span><span></span><span><span></span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>ln</span><span></span><span>b</span><span></span><span>−</span><span></span><span>ln</span><span></span><span>a</span></span></span><span><span></span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span>f</span><span>(</span><span>b</span><span>)</span><span></span><span>−</span><span></span><span>f</span><span>(</span><span>a</span><span>)</span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span></span><span></span><span>=</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span></span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>1/</span><span>ξ</span></span></span><span><span></span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span><span>f</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span>′</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span>(</span><span>ξ</span><span>)</span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span></span><span></span><span>=</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>ξ</span><span><span>f</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span>′</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span>(</span><span>ξ</span><span>)</span><span>,</span></span></span></span></span><p>整理即得结论。</p></section><section><h3>题型 6：双中值问题<a href="#题型-6双中值问题"><span>#</span></a></h3><p><strong>情况一：<span><span>ξ,η\xi,\eta</span><span><span><span></span><span>ξ</span><span>,</span><span></span><span>η</span></span></span></span> 不要求不同。</strong> 一般是对<strong>同一个区间</strong>用两次中值定理（常见组合：拉格朗日 + 柯西），然后把两个式子中相同的部分消掉。</p><p><strong>例 8</strong> 设 <span><span>0&lt;a&lt;b0&lt;a&lt;b</span><span><span><span></span><span>0</span><span></span><span>&lt;</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>a</span><span></span><span>&lt;</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>b</span></span></span></span>，<span><span>ff</span><span><span><span></span><span>f</span></span></span></span> 在 <span><span>[a,b][a,b]</span><span><span><span></span><span>[</span><span>a</span><span>,</span><span></span><span>b</span><span>]</span></span></span></span> 上连续，在 <span><span>(a,b)(a,b)</span><span><span><span></span><span>(</span><span>a</span><span>,</span><span></span><span>b</span><span>)</span></span></span></span> 内可导。证明存在 <span><span>ξ,η∈(a,b)\xi,\eta\in(a,b)</span><span><span><span></span><span>ξ</span><span>,</span><span></span><span>η</span><span></span><span>∈</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>(</span><span>a</span><span>,</span><span></span><span>b</span><span>)</span></span></span></span>，使</p><span><span><span>f′(ξ)=a+b2ηf′(η).f'(\xi)=\frac{a+b}{2\eta}f'(\eta).</span><span><span><span></span><span><span>f</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span>′</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span>(</span><span>ξ</span><span>)</span><span></span><span>=</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span></span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>2</span><span>η</span></span></span><span><span></span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span>a</span><span></span><span>+</span><span></span><span>b</span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span></span><span><span>f</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span>′</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span>(</span><span>η</span><span>)</span><span>.</span></span></span></span></span><p><strong>证</strong> 右边有 <span><span>f′(η)2η\dfrac{f'(\eta)}{2\eta}</span><span><span><span></span><span><span></span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>2</span><span>η</span></span></span><span><span></span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span><span>f</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span>′</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span>(</span><span>η</span><span>)</span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span></span></span></span></span>，这是 <span><span>f′f'</span><span><span><span></span><span><span>f</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span>′</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span> 除以 <span><span>(x2)′(x^2)'</span><span><span><span></span><span>(</span><span><span>x</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>2</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span><span>)</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span>′</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span>，对 <span><span>ff</span><span><span><span></span><span>f</span></span></span></span> 和 <span><span>g(x)=x2g(x)=x^2</span><span><span><span></span><span>g</span><span>(</span><span>x</span><span>)</span><span></span><span>=</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span>x</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>2</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span> 用柯西：</p><span><span><span>f(b)−f(a)b2−a2=f′(η)2η.\frac{f(b)-f(a)}{b^2-a^2}=\frac{f'(\eta)}{2\eta}.</span><span><span><span></span><span><span></span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span>b</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>2</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span><span>−</span><span></span><span><span>a</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>2</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span><span></span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span>f</span><span>(</span><span>b</span><span>)</span><span></span><span>−</span><span></span><span>f</span><span>(</span><span>a</span><span>)</span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span></span><span></span><span>=</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span></span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>2</span><span>η</span></span></span><span><span></span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span><span>f</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span>′</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span>(</span><span>η</span><span>)</span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span></span><span>.</span></span></span></span></span><p>再对 <span><span>ff</span><span><span><span></span><span>f</span></span></span></span> 用拉格朗日：<span><span>f(b)−f(a)=f′(ξ)(b−a)f(b)-f(a)=f'(\xi)(b-a)</span><span><span><span></span><span>f</span><span>(</span><span>b</span><span>)</span><span></span><span>−</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>f</span><span>(</span><span>a</span><span>)</span><span></span><span>=</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span>f</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span>′</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span>(</span><span>ξ</span><span>)</span><span>(</span><span>b</span><span></span><span>−</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>a</span><span>)</span></span></span></span>。代入上式：</p><span><span><span>f′(ξ)(b−a)(b−a)(b+a)=f′(η)2η ⟹ f′(ξ)=a+b2ηf′(η).\frac{f'(\xi)(b-a)}{(b-a)(b+a)}=\frac{f'(\eta)}{2\eta}\ \Longrightarrow\ f'(\xi)=\frac{a+b}{2\eta}f'(\eta).</span><span><span><span></span><span><span></span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>(</span><span>b</span><span></span><span>−</span><span></span><span>a</span><span>)</span><span>(</span><span>b</span><span></span><span>+</span><span></span><span>a</span><span>)</span></span></span><span><span></span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span><span>f</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span>′</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span>(</span><span>ξ</span><span>)</span><span>(</span><span>b</span><span></span><span>−</span><span></span><span>a</span><span>)</span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span></span><span></span><span>=</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span></span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>2</span><span>η</span></span></span><span><span></span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span><span>f</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span>′</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span>(</span><span>η</span><span>)</span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span></span><span> </span><span></span><span>⟹</span><span> </span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span>f</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span>′</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span>(</span><span>ξ</span><span>)</span><span></span><span>=</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span></span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>2</span><span>η</span></span></span><span><span></span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span>a</span><span></span><span>+</span><span></span><span>b</span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span></span><span><span>f</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span>′</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span>(</span><span>η</span><span>)</span><span>.</span></span></span></span></span><p><strong>情况二：要求 <span><span>ξ≠η\xi\ne\eta</span><span><span><span></span><span>ξ</span><span></span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span><span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span><span>=</span></span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>η</span></span></span></span>。</strong> 这时必须<strong>找一个分点 <span><span>cc</span><span><span><span></span><span>c</span></span></span></span></strong>，在 <span><span>[a,c][a,c]</span><span><span><span></span><span>[</span><span>a</span><span>,</span><span></span><span>c</span><span>]</span></span></span></span> 和 <span><span>[c,b][c,b]</span><span><span><span></span><span>[</span><span>c</span><span>,</span><span></span><span>b</span><span>]</span></span></span></span> 上各用一次拉格朗日，两个中值自然落在不同区间。</p><p><strong>例 9</strong> 设 <span><span>ff</span><span><span><span></span><span>f</span></span></span></span> 在 <span><span>[0,1][0,1]</span><span><span><span></span><span>[</span><span>0</span><span>,</span><span></span><span>1</span><span>]</span></span></span></span> 上连续，在 <span><span>(0,1)(0,1)</span><span><span><span></span><span>(</span><span>0</span><span>,</span><span></span><span>1</span><span>)</span></span></span></span> 内可导，<span><span>f(0)=0f(0)=0</span><span><span><span></span><span>f</span><span>(</span><span>0</span><span>)</span><span></span><span>=</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>0</span></span></span></span>，<span><span>f(1)=1f(1)=1</span><span><span><span></span><span>f</span><span>(</span><span>1</span><span>)</span><span></span><span>=</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>1</span></span></span></span>。证明：</p><ol>
<li>存在 <span><span>c∈(0,1)c\in(0,1)</span><span><span><span></span><span>c</span><span></span><span>∈</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>(</span><span>0</span><span>,</span><span></span><span>1</span><span>)</span></span></span></span>，使 <span><span>f(c)=1−cf(c)=1-c</span><span><span><span></span><span>f</span><span>(</span><span>c</span><span>)</span><span></span><span>=</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>1</span><span></span><span>−</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>c</span></span></span></span>；</li>
<li>存在两个不同的点 <span><span>ξ,η∈(0,1)\xi,\eta\in(0,1)</span><span><span><span></span><span>ξ</span><span>,</span><span></span><span>η</span><span></span><span>∈</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>(</span><span>0</span><span>,</span><span></span><span>1</span><span>)</span></span></span></span>，使 <span><span>f′(ξ)f′(η)=1f'(\xi)f'(\eta)=1</span><span><span><span></span><span><span>f</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span>′</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span>(</span><span>ξ</span><span>)</span><span><span>f</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span>′</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span>(</span><span>η</span><span>)</span><span></span><span>=</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>1</span></span></span></span>。</li>
</ol><p><strong>证</strong> (1) 令 <span><span>φ(x)=f(x)−1+x\varphi(x)=f(x)-1+x</span><span><span><span></span><span>φ</span><span>(</span><span>x</span><span>)</span><span></span><span>=</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>f</span><span>(</span><span>x</span><span>)</span><span></span><span>−</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>1</span><span></span><span>+</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>x</span></span></span></span>，<span><span>φ(0)=−1&lt;0\varphi(0)=-1&lt;0</span><span><span><span></span><span>φ</span><span>(</span><span>0</span><span>)</span><span></span><span>=</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>−</span><span>1</span><span></span><span>&lt;</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>0</span></span></span></span>，<span><span>φ(1)=1&gt;0\varphi(1)=1&gt;0</span><span><span><span></span><span>φ</span><span>(</span><span>1</span><span>)</span><span></span><span>=</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>1</span><span></span><span>&gt;</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>0</span></span></span></span>，由零点定理得 <span><span>cc</span><span><span><span></span><span>c</span></span></span></span>。</p><p>(2) 在 <span><span>[0,c][0,c]</span><span><span><span></span><span>[</span><span>0</span><span>,</span><span></span><span>c</span><span>]</span></span></span></span> 和 <span><span>[c,1][c,1]</span><span><span><span></span><span>[</span><span>c</span><span>,</span><span></span><span>1</span><span>]</span></span></span></span> 上分别用拉格朗日：</p><span><span><span>f′(ξ)=f(c)−f(0)c=1−cc,f′(η)=f(1)−f(c)1−c=c1−c.f'(\xi)=\frac{f(c)-f(0)}{c}=\frac{1-c}{c},\qquad f'(\eta)=\frac{f(1)-f(c)}{1-c}=\frac{c}{1-c}.</span><span><span><span></span><span><span>f</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span>′</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span>(</span><span>ξ</span><span>)</span><span></span><span>=</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span></span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>c</span></span></span><span><span></span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span>f</span><span>(</span><span>c</span><span>)</span><span></span><span>−</span><span></span><span>f</span><span>(</span><span>0</span><span>)</span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span></span><span></span><span>=</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span></span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>c</span></span></span><span><span></span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span>1</span><span></span><span>−</span><span></span><span>c</span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span></span><span>,</span><span></span><span></span><span><span>f</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span>′</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span>(</span><span>η</span><span>)</span><span></span><span>=</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span></span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>1</span><span></span><span>−</span><span></span><span>c</span></span></span><span><span></span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span>f</span><span>(</span><span>1</span><span>)</span><span></span><span>−</span><span></span><span>f</span><span>(</span><span>c</span><span>)</span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span></span><span></span><span>=</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span></span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>1</span><span></span><span>−</span><span></span><span>c</span></span></span><span><span></span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span>c</span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span></span><span>.</span></span></span></span></span><p>其中 <span><span>ξ∈(0,c)\xi\in(0,c)</span><span><span><span></span><span>ξ</span><span></span><span>∈</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>(</span><span>0</span><span>,</span><span></span><span>c</span><span>)</span></span></span></span>，<span><span>η∈(c,1)\eta\in(c,1)</span><span><span><span></span><span>η</span><span></span><span>∈</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>(</span><span>c</span><span>,</span><span></span><span>1</span><span>)</span></span></span></span>，所以 <span><span>ξ≠η\xi\ne\eta</span><span><span><span></span><span>ξ</span><span></span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span><span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span><span>=</span></span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>η</span></span></span></span>，且 <span><span>f′(ξ)f′(η)=1f'(\xi)f'(\eta)=1</span><span><span><span></span><span><span>f</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span>′</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span>(</span><span>ξ</span><span>)</span><span><span>f</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span>′</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span>(</span><span>η</span><span>)</span><span></span><span>=</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>1</span></span></span></span>。</p><div><div><div></div><div>分点 <span><span>cc</span><span><span><span></span><span>c</span></span></span></span> 怎么找</div></div><div><p>先写出 <span><span>f′(ξ)f′(η)=f(c)c⋅1−f(c)1−cf'(\xi)f'(\eta)=\dfrac{f(c)}{c}\cdot\dfrac{1-f(c)}{1-c}</span><span><span><span></span><span><span>f</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span>′</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span>(</span><span>ξ</span><span>)</span><span><span>f</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span>′</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span>(</span><span>η</span><span>)</span><span></span><span>=</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span></span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>c</span></span></span><span><span></span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span>f</span><span>(</span><span>c</span><span>)</span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span></span><span></span><span>⋅</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span></span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>1</span><span></span><span>−</span><span></span><span>c</span></span></span><span><span></span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span>1</span><span></span><span>−</span><span></span><span>f</span><span>(</span><span>c</span><span>)</span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span></span></span></span></span>，看要让它等于 <span><span>11</span><span><span><span></span><span>1</span></span></span></span>，<span><span>f(c)f(c)</span><span><span><span></span><span>f</span><span>(</span><span>c</span><span>)</span></span></span></span> 应该取什么值。这里 <span><span>f(c)=1−cf(c)=1-c</span><span><span><span></span><span>f</span><span>(</span><span>c</span><span>)</span><span></span><span>=</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>1</span><span></span><span>−</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>c</span></span></span></span> 正好使分子分母约掉。题目第 (1) 问往往直接把分点给你了。</p></div></div></section><section><h3>题型 7：用拉格朗日证明不等式<a href="#题型-7用拉格朗日证明不等式"><span>#</span></a></h3><p><strong>识别特征</strong>：不等式中出现 <span><span>f(b)−f(a)f(b)-f(a)</span><span><span><span></span><span>f</span><span>(</span><span>b</span><span>)</span><span></span><span>−</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>f</span><span>(</span><span>a</span><span>)</span></span></span></span> 的形式，或者能整理成这种形式。</p><p><strong>解法</strong>：用拉格朗日把差变成 <span><span>f′(ξ)(b−a)f'(\xi)(b-a)</span><span><span><span></span><span><span>f</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span>′</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span>(</span><span>ξ</span><span>)</span><span>(</span><span>b</span><span></span><span>−</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>a</span><span>)</span></span></span></span>，再利用 <span><span>a&lt;ξ&lt;ba&lt;\xi&lt;b</span><span><span><span></span><span>a</span><span></span><span>&lt;</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>ξ</span><span></span><span>&lt;</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>b</span></span></span></span> 对 <span><span>f′(ξ)f'(\xi)</span><span><span><span></span><span><span>f</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span>′</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span>(</span><span>ξ</span><span>)</span></span></span></span> 放缩。</p><p><strong>例 10</strong> 设 <span><span>0&lt;a&lt;b0&lt;a&lt;b</span><span><span><span></span><span>0</span><span></span><span>&lt;</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>a</span><span></span><span>&lt;</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>b</span></span></span></span>，证明</p><span><span><span>b−ab&lt;ln⁡ba&lt;b−aa.\frac{b-a}{b}&lt;\ln\frac ba&lt;\frac{b-a}{a}.</span><span><span><span></span><span><span></span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>b</span></span></span><span><span></span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span>b</span><span></span><span>−</span><span></span><span>a</span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span></span><span></span><span>&lt;</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>ln</span><span></span><span><span></span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>a</span></span></span><span><span></span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span>b</span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span></span><span></span><span>&lt;</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span></span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>a</span></span></span><span><span></span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span>b</span><span></span><span>−</span><span></span><span>a</span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span></span><span>.</span></span></span></span></span><p><strong>证</strong> 对 <span><span>f(x)=ln⁡xf(x)=\ln x</span><span><span><span></span><span>f</span><span>(</span><span>x</span><span>)</span><span></span><span>=</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>ln</span><span></span><span>x</span></span></span></span> 在 <span><span>[a,b][a,b]</span><span><span><span></span><span>[</span><span>a</span><span>,</span><span></span><span>b</span><span>]</span></span></span></span> 上用拉格朗日：</p><span><span><span>ln⁡b−ln⁡a=1ξ(b−a),a&lt;ξ&lt;b.\ln b-\ln a=\frac{1}{\xi}(b-a),\qquad a&lt;\xi&lt;b.</span><span><span><span></span><span>ln</span><span></span><span>b</span><span></span><span>−</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>ln</span><span></span><span>a</span><span></span><span>=</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span></span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>ξ</span></span></span><span><span></span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span>1</span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span></span><span>(</span><span>b</span><span></span><span>−</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>a</span><span>)</span><span>,</span><span></span><span></span><span>a</span><span></span><span>&lt;</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>ξ</span><span></span><span>&lt;</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>b</span><span>.</span></span></span></span></span><p>由 <span><span>1b&lt;1ξ&lt;1a\dfrac1b&lt;\dfrac1\xi&lt;\dfrac1a</span><span><span><span></span><span><span></span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>b</span></span></span><span><span></span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span>1</span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span></span><span></span><span>&lt;</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span></span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>ξ</span></span></span><span><span></span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span>1</span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span></span><span></span><span>&lt;</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span></span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>a</span></span></span><span><span></span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span>1</span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span></span></span></span></span>，各乘 <span><span>b−a&gt;0b-a&gt;0</span><span><span><span></span><span>b</span><span></span><span>−</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>a</span><span></span><span>&gt;</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>0</span></span></span></span> 即得结论。</p></section><section><h3>题型 8：用拉格朗日求极限<a href="#题型-8用拉格朗日求极限"><span>#</span></a></h3><p><strong>识别特征</strong>：极限中出现<strong>同一个函数在两点处的差</strong>，如 <span><span>f(□1)−f(□2)f(\square_1)-f(\square_2)</span><span><span><span></span><span>f</span><span>(</span><span><span>□</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>1</span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span>)</span><span></span><span>−</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>f</span><span>(</span><span><span>□</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>2</span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span>)</span></span></span></span>。</p><p><strong>例 11</strong> 求 <span><span>lim⁡x→+∞x2[arctan⁡ax−arctan⁡ax+1]\displaystyle\lim_{x\to+\infty}x^2\left[\arctan\frac{a}{x}-\arctan\frac{a}{x+1}\right]</span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span>x</span><span>→</span><span>+</span><span>∞</span></span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span>lim</span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span><span><span>x</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>2</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span><span><span><span>[</span></span><span>arctan</span><span></span><span><span></span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>x</span></span></span><span><span></span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span>a</span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span></span><span></span><span>−</span><span></span><span>arctan</span><span></span><span><span></span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>x</span><span></span><span>+</span><span></span><span>1</span></span></span><span><span></span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span>a</span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span></span><span><span>]</span></span></span></span></span></span>（<span><span>a≠0a\ne0</span><span><span><span></span><span>a</span><span></span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span><span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span><span>=</span></span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>0</span></span></span></span>）。</p><p><strong>解</strong> 对 <span><span>arctan⁡t\arctan t</span><span><span><span></span><span>arctan</span><span></span><span>t</span></span></span></span> 在 <span><span>ax+1\frac{a}{x+1}</span><span><span><span></span><span><span></span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span>x</span><span>+</span><span>1</span></span></span></span><span><span></span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span><span>a</span></span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span></span></span></span></span> 与 <span><span>ax\frac ax</span><span><span><span></span><span><span></span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span>x</span></span></span></span><span><span></span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span><span>a</span></span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span></span></span></span></span> 之间用拉格朗日：</p><span><span><span>arctan⁡ax−arctan⁡ax+1=11+ξ2(ax−ax+1)=11+ξ2⋅ax(x+1),\arctan\frac ax-\arctan\frac a{x+1}=\frac{1}{1+\xi^2}\left(\frac ax-\frac a{x+1}\right)=\frac{1}{1+\xi^2}\cdot\frac{a}{x(x+1)},</span><span><span><span></span><span>arctan</span><span></span><span><span></span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>x</span></span></span><span><span></span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span>a</span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span></span><span></span><span>−</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>arctan</span><span></span><span><span></span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>x</span><span></span><span>+</span><span></span><span>1</span></span></span><span><span></span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span>a</span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span></span><span></span><span>=</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span></span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>1</span><span></span><span>+</span><span></span><span><span>ξ</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>2</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span><span></span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span>1</span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span></span><span></span><span><span><span>(</span></span><span><span></span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>x</span></span></span><span><span></span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span>a</span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span></span><span></span><span>−</span><span></span><span><span></span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>x</span><span></span><span>+</span><span></span><span>1</span></span></span><span><span></span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span>a</span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span></span><span><span>)</span></span></span><span></span><span>=</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span></span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>1</span><span></span><span>+</span><span></span><span><span>ξ</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>2</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span><span></span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span>1</span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span></span><span></span><span>⋅</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span></span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>x</span><span>(</span><span>x</span><span></span><span>+</span><span></span><span>1</span><span>)</span></span></span><span><span></span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span>a</span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span></span><span>,</span></span></span></span></span><p><span><span>ξ\xi</span><span><span><span></span><span>ξ</span></span></span></span> 夹在两个都趋于 <span><span>00</span><span><span><span></span><span>0</span></span></span></span> 的数之间，所以 <span><span>ξ→0\xi\to0</span><span><span><span></span><span>ξ</span><span></span><span>→</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>0</span></span></span></span>。于是</p><span><span><span>原式=lim⁡x→+∞11+ξ2⋅ax2x(x+1)=a.\text{原式}=\lim_{x\to+\infty}\frac{1}{1+\xi^2}\cdot\frac{ax^2}{x(x+1)}=\boxed a.</span><span><span><span></span><span><span>原式</span></span><span></span><span>=</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span>x</span><span>→</span><span>+</span><span>∞</span></span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span>lim</span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span><span><span></span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>1</span><span></span><span>+</span><span></span><span><span>ξ</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>2</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span><span></span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span>1</span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span></span><span></span><span>⋅</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span></span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>x</span><span>(</span><span>x</span><span></span><span>+</span><span></span><span>1</span><span>)</span></span></span><span><span></span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span>a</span><span><span>x</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>2</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span></span><span></span><span>=</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span><span>a</span></span></span></span></span><span><span></span><span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span><span>.</span></span></span></span></span></section><section><h3>题型 9：证明恒等式<a href="#题型-9证明恒等式"><span>#</span></a></h3><p><strong>解法</strong>：令 <span><span>F(x)=F(x)=</span><span><span><span></span><span>F</span><span>(</span><span>x</span><span>)</span><span></span><span>=</span></span></span></span> 左边 <span><span>−-</span><span><span><span></span><span>−</span></span></span></span> 右边，证明 <span><span>F′(x)≡0F'(x)\equiv0</span><span><span><span></span><span><span>F</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span>′</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span>(</span><span>x</span><span>)</span><span></span><span>≡</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>0</span></span></span></span>，再代一个特殊点求出常数。</p><p><strong>例 12</strong> 证明 <span><span>arcsin⁡x+arccos⁡x=π2\arcsin x+\arccos x=\dfrac\pi2</span><span><span><span></span><span>arcsin</span><span></span><span>x</span><span></span><span>+</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>arccos</span><span></span><span>x</span><span></span><span>=</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span></span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>2</span></span></span><span><span></span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span>π</span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span></span></span></span></span>，<span><span>x∈[−1,1]x\in[-1,1]</span><span><span><span></span><span>x</span><span></span><span>∈</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>[</span><span>−</span><span>1</span><span>,</span><span></span><span>1</span><span>]</span></span></span></span>。</p><p><strong>证</strong> 令 <span><span>F(x)=arcsin⁡x+arccos⁡xF(x)=\arcsin x+\arccos x</span><span><span><span></span><span>F</span><span>(</span><span>x</span><span>)</span><span></span><span>=</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>arcsin</span><span></span><span>x</span><span></span><span>+</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>arccos</span><span></span><span>x</span></span></span></span>。在 <span><span>(−1,1)(-1,1)</span><span><span><span></span><span>(</span><span>−</span><span>1</span><span>,</span><span></span><span>1</span><span>)</span></span></span></span> 内</p><span><span><span>F′(x)=11−x2−11−x2=0,F'(x)=\frac{1}{\sqrt{1-x^2}}-\frac{1}{\sqrt{1-x^2}}=0,</span><span><span><span></span><span><span>F</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span>′</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span>(</span><span>x</span><span>)</span><span></span><span>=</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span></span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>1</span><span></span><span>−</span><span></span><span><span>x</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>2</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span><span></span><span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span><span></span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span>1</span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span></span><span></span><span>−</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span></span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>1</span><span></span><span>−</span><span></span><span><span>x</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>2</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span><span></span><span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span><span></span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span>1</span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span></span><span></span><span>=</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>0</span><span>,</span></span></span></span></span><p>所以 <span><span>F(x)≡CF(x)\equiv C</span><span><span><span></span><span>F</span><span>(</span><span>x</span><span>)</span><span></span><span>≡</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>C</span></span></span></span>。取 <span><span>x=0x=0</span><span><span><span></span><span>x</span><span></span><span>=</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>0</span></span></span></span> 得 <span><span>C=π2C=\dfrac\pi2</span><span><span><span></span><span>C</span><span></span><span>=</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span></span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>2</span></span></span><span><span></span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span>π</span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span></span></span></span></span>。端点 <span><span>x=±1x=\pm1</span><span><span><span></span><span>x</span><span></span><span>=</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>±</span><span>1</span></span></span></span> 直接代入验证也成立。</p></section></section>
<section><h2>五、证明思路<a href="#五证明思路"><span>#</span></a></h2><section><h3>1. 费马引理<a href="#1-费马引理-1"><span>#</span></a></h3><p>设 <span><span>x0x_0</span><span><span><span></span><span><span>x</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>0</span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span> 是极大值点，在 <span><span>x0x_0</span><span><span><span></span><span><span>x</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>0</span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span> 附近 <span><span>f(x)≤f(x0)f(x)\le f(x_0)</span><span><span><span></span><span>f</span><span>(</span><span>x</span><span>)</span><span></span><span>≤</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>f</span><span>(</span><span><span>x</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>0</span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span>)</span></span></span></span>，所以</p><span><span><span>f(x)−f(x0)x−x0{≥0,x&lt;x0≤0,x&gt;x0\frac{f(x)-f(x_0)}{x-x_0}\begin{cases}\ge0,&amp;x&lt;x_0\\\le0,&amp;x&gt;x_0\end{cases}</span><span><span><span></span><span><span></span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>x</span><span></span><span>−</span><span></span><span><span>x</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>0</span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span><span></span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span>f</span><span>(</span><span>x</span><span>)</span><span></span><span>−</span><span></span><span>f</span><span>(</span><span><span>x</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>0</span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span>)</span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span></span><span></span><span><span><span>{</span></span><span><span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>≥</span><span></span><span>0</span><span>,</span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span>≤</span><span></span><span>0</span><span>,</span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>x</span><span></span><span>&lt;</span><span></span><span><span>x</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>0</span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span>x</span><span></span><span>&gt;</span><span></span><span><span>x</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>0</span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span></span></span></span></span></span><p>由极限的保号性，<span><span>f−′(x0)≥0f'_-(x_0)\ge0</span><span><span><span></span><span><span>f</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>−</span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span><span>′</span></span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span>(</span><span><span>x</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>0</span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span>)</span><span></span><span>≥</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>0</span></span></span></span>，<span><span>f+′(x0)≤0f'_+(x_0)\le0</span><span><span><span></span><span><span>f</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>+</span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span><span>′</span></span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span>(</span><span><span>x</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>0</span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span>)</span><span></span><span>≤</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>0</span></span></span></span>。又因为可导，两者相等，只能等于 <span><span>00</span><span><span><span></span><span>0</span></span></span></span>。</p></section><section><h3>2. 罗尔定理<a href="#2-罗尔定理-1"><span>#</span></a></h3><p><span><span>ff</span><span><span><span></span><span>f</span></span></span></span> 在 <span><span>[a,b][a,b]</span><span><span><span></span><span>[</span><span>a</span><span>,</span><span></span><span>b</span><span>]</span></span></span></span> 上连续，必有最大值 <span><span>MM</span><span><span><span></span><span>M</span></span></span></span> 和最小值 <span><span>mm</span><span><span><span></span><span>m</span></span></span></span>。</p><ul>
<li>若 <span><span>M=mM=m</span><span><span><span></span><span>M</span><span></span><span>=</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>m</span></span></span></span>，<span><span>ff</span><span><span><span></span><span>f</span></span></span></span> 是常数，任取 <span><span>ξ\xi</span><span><span><span></span><span>ξ</span></span></span></span> 都有 <span><span>f′(ξ)=0f'(\xi)=0</span><span><span><span></span><span><span>f</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span>′</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span>(</span><span>ξ</span><span>)</span><span></span><span>=</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>0</span></span></span></span>。</li>
<li>若 <span><span>M&gt;mM&gt;m</span><span><span><span></span><span>M</span><span></span><span>&gt;</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>m</span></span></span></span>，由于 <span><span>f(a)=f(b)f(a)=f(b)</span><span><span><span></span><span>f</span><span>(</span><span>a</span><span>)</span><span></span><span>=</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>f</span><span>(</span><span>b</span><span>)</span></span></span></span>，<span><span>MM</span><span><span><span></span><span>M</span></span></span></span> 和 <span><span>mm</span><span><span><span></span><span>m</span></span></span></span> 至少有一个在<strong>区间内部</strong>取到，该点是极值点，由费马引理导数为 <span><span>00</span><span><span><span></span><span>0</span></span></span></span>。</li>
</ul></section><section><h3>3. 拉格朗日：从 <span><span>ff</span><span><span><span></span><span>f</span></span></span></span> 中减去弦<a href="#3-拉格朗日从-fff-中减去弦"><span>#</span></a></h3><p>弦的方程是 <span><span>L(x)=f(a)+f(b)−f(a)b−a(x−a)L(x)=f(a)+\dfrac{f(b)-f(a)}{b-a}(x-a)</span><span><span><span></span><span>L</span><span>(</span><span>x</span><span>)</span><span></span><span>=</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>f</span><span>(</span><span>a</span><span>)</span><span></span><span>+</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span></span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>b</span><span></span><span>−</span><span></span><span>a</span></span></span><span><span></span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span>f</span><span>(</span><span>b</span><span>)</span><span></span><span>−</span><span></span><span>f</span><span>(</span><span>a</span><span>)</span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span></span><span>(</span><span>x</span><span></span><span>−</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>a</span><span>)</span></span></span></span>。令 <span><span>F(x)=f(x)−L(x)F(x)=f(x)-L(x)</span><span><span><span></span><span>F</span><span>(</span><span>x</span><span>)</span><span></span><span>=</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>f</span><span>(</span><span>x</span><span>)</span><span></span><span>−</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>L</span><span>(</span><span>x</span><span>)</span></span></span></span>，则 <span><span>F(a)=F(b)=0F(a)=F(b)=0</span><span><span><span></span><span>F</span><span>(</span><span>a</span><span>)</span><span></span><span>=</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>F</span><span>(</span><span>b</span><span>)</span><span></span><span>=</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>0</span></span></span></span>。由罗尔，存在 <span><span>ξ\xi</span><span><span><span></span><span>ξ</span></span></span></span> 使</p><span><span><span>F′(ξ)=f′(ξ)−f(b)−f(a)b−a=0.F'(\xi)=f'(\xi)-\frac{f(b)-f(a)}{b-a}=0.</span><span><span><span></span><span><span>F</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span>′</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span>(</span><span>ξ</span><span>)</span><span></span><span>=</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span>f</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span>′</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span>(</span><span>ξ</span><span>)</span><span></span><span>−</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span></span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>b</span><span></span><span>−</span><span></span><span>a</span></span></span><span><span></span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span>f</span><span>(</span><span>b</span><span>)</span><span></span><span>−</span><span></span><span>f</span><span>(</span><span>a</span><span>)</span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span></span><span></span><span>=</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>0.</span></span></span></span></span><p>直观上，就是把图像“扳平”，使两端等高，再用罗尔。</p></section><section><h3>4. 柯西：同样的思路<a href="#4-柯西同样的思路"><span>#</span></a></h3><p>令 <span><span>F(x)=f(x)−f(b)−f(a)g(b)−g(a)g(x)F(x)=f(x)-\dfrac{f(b)-f(a)}{g(b)-g(a)}g(x)</span><span><span><span></span><span>F</span><span>(</span><span>x</span><span>)</span><span></span><span>=</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>f</span><span>(</span><span>x</span><span>)</span><span></span><span>−</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span></span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>g</span><span>(</span><span>b</span><span>)</span><span></span><span>−</span><span></span><span>g</span><span>(</span><span>a</span><span>)</span></span></span><span><span></span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span>f</span><span>(</span><span>b</span><span>)</span><span></span><span>−</span><span></span><span>f</span><span>(</span><span>a</span><span>)</span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span></span><span>g</span><span>(</span><span>x</span><span>)</span></span></span></span>，可以验证 <span><span>F(a)=F(b)F(a)=F(b)</span><span><span><span></span><span>F</span><span>(</span><span>a</span><span>)</span><span></span><span>=</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>F</span><span>(</span><span>b</span><span>)</span></span></span></span>，用罗尔即得。</p><div><div><div></div><div>不能用两次拉格朗日证明柯西</div></div><div><p>分别对 <span><span>ff</span><span><span><span></span><span>f</span></span></span></span>、<span><span>gg</span><span><span><span></span><span>g</span></span></span></span> 用拉格朗日，得到的是 <span><span>f′(ξ1)g′(ξ2)\dfrac{f'(\xi_1)}{g'(\xi_2)}</span><span><span><span></span><span><span></span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span>g</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span>′</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span>(</span><span><span>ξ</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>2</span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span>)</span></span></span><span><span></span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span><span>f</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span>′</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span>(</span><span><span>ξ</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>1</span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span>)</span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span></span></span></span></span>，两个中值一般<strong>不相同</strong>，推不出柯西。</p></div></div></section><section><h3>5. 还原法为什么有效<a href="#5-还原法为什么有效"><span>#</span></a></h3><p>以 <span><span>f′(x)+λf(x)=0f'(x)+\lambda f(x)=0</span><span><span><span></span><span><span>f</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span>′</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span>(</span><span>x</span><span>)</span><span></span><span>+</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>λ</span><span>f</span><span>(</span><span>x</span><span>)</span><span></span><span>=</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>0</span></span></span></span> 为例，把它当作微分方程来解：</p><span><span><span>f′f=−λ ⟹ ln⁡∣f∣=−λx+C ⟹ eλxf(x)=C.\frac{f'}{f}=-\lambda\ \Longrightarrow\ \ln|f|=-\lambda x+C\ \Longrightarrow\ e^{\lambda x}f(x)=C.</span><span><span><span></span><span><span></span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>f</span></span></span><span><span></span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span><span>f</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span>′</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span></span><span></span><span>=</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>−</span><span>λ</span><span> </span><span></span><span>⟹</span><span> </span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>ln</span><span></span><span>∣</span><span>f</span><span>∣</span><span></span><span>=</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>−</span><span>λ</span><span>x</span><span></span><span>+</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>C</span><span> </span><span></span><span>⟹</span><span> </span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span>e</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span>λ</span><span>x</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span>f</span><span>(</span><span>x</span><span>)</span><span></span><span>=</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>C</span><span>.</span></span></span></span></span><p>这说明 <span><span>(eλxf(x))′=eλx[f′(x)+λf(x)]\bigl(e^{\lambda x}f(x)\bigr)'=e^{\lambda x}\bigl[f'(x)+\lambda f(x)\bigr]</span><span><span><span></span><span><span>(</span></span><span><span>e</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span>λ</span><span>x</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span>f</span><span>(</span><span>x</span><span>)</span><span><span><span>)</span></span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span>′</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span><span>=</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span>e</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span>λ</span><span>x</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span><span>[</span></span><span><span>f</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span>′</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span>(</span><span>x</span><span>)</span><span></span><span>+</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>λ</span><span>f</span><span>(</span><span>x</span><span>)</span><span><span>]</span></span></span></span></span>，正好包含要证的式子。乘上的 <span><span>eλxe^{\lambda x}</span><span><span><span></span><span><span>e</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span>λ</span><span>x</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span> 恒不为 <span><span>00</span><span><span><span></span><span>0</span></span></span></span>，所以 <span><span>F′(ξ)=0F'(\xi)=0</span><span><span><span></span><span><span>F</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span>′</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span>(</span><span>ξ</span><span>)</span><span></span><span>=</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>0</span></span></span></span> 就等价于结论成立。<span><span>xkf(x)x^kf(x)</span><span><span><span></span><span><span>x</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>k</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span>f</span><span>(</span><span>x</span><span>)</span></span></span></span> 也是同样的道理。</p></section></section>
<section><h2>六、易错点<a href="#六易错点"><span>#</span></a></h2><div><div><div></div><div>中值 <span><span>ξ\xi</span><span><span><span></span><span>ξ</span></span></span></span> 依赖于区间</div></div><div><p>拉格朗日中的 <span><span>ξ\xi</span><span><span><span></span><span>ξ</span></span></span></span> 随 <span><span>a,ba,b</span><span><span><span></span><span>a</span><span>,</span><span></span><span>b</span></span></span></span>（或 <span><span>xx</span><span><span><span></span><span>x</span></span></span></span>）变化而变化，<strong>不是常数</strong>。求极限时只能用夹逼说明 <span><span>ξ\xi</span><span><span><span></span><span>ξ</span></span></span></span> 的去向，例如 <span><span>ξ\xi</span><span><span><span></span><span>ξ</span></span></span></span> 夹在两个趋于 <span><span>00</span><span><span><span></span><span>0</span></span></span></span> 的量之间，所以 <span><span>ξ→0\xi\to0</span><span><span><span></span><span>ξ</span><span></span><span>→</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>0</span></span></span></span>。不能把 <span><span>ξ\xi</span><span><span><span></span><span>ξ</span></span></span></span> 当作常数提出去，也不能对它随意求导。</p></div></div><ul>
<li><strong>条件不全</strong>：三个定理都要求“闭区间连续、开区间可导”，选择题常把其中一个去掉。例如 <span><span>f(x)=∣x∣f(x)=|x|</span><span><span><span></span><span>f</span><span>(</span><span>x</span><span>)</span><span></span><span>=</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>∣</span><span>x</span><span>∣</span></span></span></span> 在 <span><span>[−1,1][-1,1]</span><span><span><span></span><span>[</span><span>−</span><span>1</span><span>,</span><span></span><span>1</span><span>]</span></span></span></span> 上 <span><span>f(−1)=f(1)f(-1)=f(1)</span><span><span><span></span><span>f</span><span>(</span><span>−</span><span>1</span><span>)</span><span></span><span>=</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>f</span><span>(</span><span>1</span><span>)</span></span></span></span>，但 <span><span>x=0x=0</span><span><span><span></span><span>x</span><span></span><span>=</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>0</span></span></span></span> 不可导，不存在 <span><span>f′(ξ)=0f'(\xi)=0</span><span><span><span></span><span><span>f</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span>′</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span>(</span><span>ξ</span><span>)</span><span></span><span>=</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>0</span></span></span></span>。</li>
<li><strong><span><span>ξ\xi</span><span><span><span></span><span>ξ</span></span></span></span> 的范围</strong>：结论中 <span><span>ξ\xi</span><span><span><span></span><span>ξ</span></span></span></span> 在<strong>开区间</strong>内，写证明时不要写成闭区间。</li>
<li><strong>罗尔定理的逆命题不成立</strong>：<span><span>f′(ξ)=0f'(\xi)=0</span><span><span><span></span><span><span>f</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span>′</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span>(</span><span>ξ</span><span>)</span><span></span><span>=</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>0</span></span></span></span> 不能推出 <span><span>f(a)=f(b)f(a)=f(b)</span><span><span><span></span><span>f</span><span>(</span><span>a</span><span>)</span><span></span><span>=</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>f</span><span>(</span><span>b</span><span>)</span></span></span></span>。</li>
<li><strong>导数为 <span><span>00</span><span><span><span></span><span>0</span></span></span></span> 不一定是极值点</strong>：<span><span>f(x)=x3f(x)=x^3</span><span><span><span></span><span>f</span><span>(</span><span>x</span><span>)</span><span></span><span>=</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span>x</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>3</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span> 在 <span><span>x=0x=0</span><span><span><span></span><span>x</span><span></span><span>=</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>0</span></span></span></span> 处导数为 <span><span>00</span><span><span><span></span><span>0</span></span></span></span>，但不是极值点。费马引理只说“极值点处导数为 <span><span>00</span><span><span><span></span><span>0</span></span></span></span>”。</li>
<li><strong>双中值要求不同时只用一个区间</strong>：两个中值可能重合，必须分段。</li>
<li><strong>构造辅助函数后忘了说明因子不为 <span><span>00</span><span><span><span></span><span>0</span></span></span></span></strong>：例如例 2 要说明 <span><span>ξ≠0\xi\ne0</span><span><span><span></span><span>ξ</span><span></span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span><span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span><span>=</span></span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>0</span></span></span></span>，例 3 要说明 <span><span>e−λξ≠0e^{-\lambda\xi}\ne0</span><span><span><span></span><span><span>e</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span>−</span><span>λ</span><span>ξ</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span><span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span><span>=</span></span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>0</span></span></span></span>。</li>
</ul></section>
<section><h2>七、小练习<a href="#七小练习"><span>#</span></a></h2><p><strong>1.</strong> 证明对任意实数 <span><span>a,ba,b</span><span><span><span></span><span>a</span><span>,</span><span></span><span>b</span></span></span></span>，<span><span>∣sin⁡a−sin⁡b∣≤∣a−b∣|\sin a-\sin b|\le|a-b|</span><span><span><span></span><span>∣</span><span></span><span>sin</span><span></span><span>a</span><span></span><span>−</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>sin</span><span></span><span>b</span><span>∣</span><span></span><span>≤</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>∣</span><span>a</span><span></span><span>−</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>b</span><span>∣</span></span></span></span>。</p>
点击查看答案<p><span><span>a=ba=b</span><span><span><span></span><span>a</span><span></span><span>=</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>b</span></span></span></span> 时显然成立。<span><span>a≠ba\ne b</span><span><span><span></span><span>a</span><span></span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span><span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span><span>=</span></span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>b</span></span></span></span> 时，对 <span><span>sin⁡x\sin x</span><span><span><span></span><span>sin</span><span></span><span>x</span></span></span></span> 用拉格朗日：<span><span>sin⁡a−sin⁡b=cos⁡ξ (a−b)\sin a-\sin b=\cos\xi\,(a-b)</span><span><span><span></span><span>sin</span><span></span><span>a</span><span></span><span>−</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>sin</span><span></span><span>b</span><span></span><span>=</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>cos</span><span></span><span>ξ</span><span></span><span>(</span><span>a</span><span></span><span>−</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>b</span><span>)</span></span></span></span>。由 <span><span>∣cos⁡ξ∣≤1|\cos\xi|\le1</span><span><span><span></span><span>∣</span><span></span><span>cos</span><span></span><span>ξ</span><span>∣</span><span></span><span>≤</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>1</span></span></span></span> 得 <span><span>∣sin⁡a−sin⁡b∣≤∣a−b∣|\sin a-\sin b|\le|a-b|</span><span><span><span></span><span>∣</span><span></span><span>sin</span><span></span><span>a</span><span></span><span>−</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>sin</span><span></span><span>b</span><span>∣</span><span></span><span>≤</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>∣</span><span>a</span><span></span><span>−</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>b</span><span>∣</span></span></span></span>。</p><p><strong>2.</strong> 设 <span><span>ff</span><span><span><span></span><span>f</span></span></span></span> 在 <span><span>[0,1][0,1]</span><span><span><span></span><span>[</span><span>0</span><span>,</span><span></span><span>1</span><span>]</span></span></span></span> 上连续，在 <span><span>(0,1)(0,1)</span><span><span><span></span><span>(</span><span>0</span><span>,</span><span></span><span>1</span><span>)</span></span></span></span> 内可导，<span><span>f(1)=0f(1)=0</span><span><span><span></span><span>f</span><span>(</span><span>1</span><span>)</span><span></span><span>=</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>0</span></span></span></span>。证明存在 <span><span>ξ∈(0,1)\xi\in(0,1)</span><span><span><span></span><span>ξ</span><span></span><span>∈</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>(</span><span>0</span><span>,</span><span></span><span>1</span><span>)</span></span></span></span>，使 <span><span>f′(ξ)=−f(ξ)ξf'(\xi)=-\dfrac{f(\xi)}{\xi}</span><span><span><span></span><span><span>f</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span>′</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span>(</span><span>ξ</span><span>)</span><span></span><span>=</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>−</span><span><span></span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>ξ</span></span></span><span><span></span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span>f</span><span>(</span><span>ξ</span><span>)</span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span></span></span></span></span>。</p>
点击查看答案<p>结论即 <span><span>ξf′(ξ)+f(ξ)=0\xi f'(\xi)+f(\xi)=0</span><span><span><span></span><span>ξ</span><span><span>f</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span>′</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span>(</span><span>ξ</span><span>)</span><span></span><span>+</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>f</span><span>(</span><span>ξ</span><span>)</span><span></span><span>=</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>0</span></span></span></span>，对应辅助函数表中 <span><span>k=1k=1</span><span><span><span></span><span>k</span><span></span><span>=</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>1</span></span></span></span> 的情况。令 <span><span>F(x)=xf(x)F(x)=xf(x)</span><span><span><span></span><span>F</span><span>(</span><span>x</span><span>)</span><span></span><span>=</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>x</span><span>f</span><span>(</span><span>x</span><span>)</span></span></span></span>，<span><span>F(0)=0F(0)=0</span><span><span><span></span><span>F</span><span>(</span><span>0</span><span>)</span><span></span><span>=</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>0</span></span></span></span>，<span><span>F(1)=f(1)=0F(1)=f(1)=0</span><span><span><span></span><span>F</span><span>(</span><span>1</span><span>)</span><span></span><span>=</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>f</span><span>(</span><span>1</span><span>)</span><span></span><span>=</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>0</span></span></span></span>。由罗尔，存在 <span><span>ξ∈(0,1)\xi\in(0,1)</span><span><span><span></span><span>ξ</span><span></span><span>∈</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>(</span><span>0</span><span>,</span><span></span><span>1</span><span>)</span></span></span></span> 使 <span><span>F′(ξ)=f(ξ)+ξf′(ξ)=0F'(\xi)=f(\xi)+\xi f'(\xi)=0</span><span><span><span></span><span><span>F</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span>′</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span>(</span><span>ξ</span><span>)</span><span></span><span>=</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>f</span><span>(</span><span>ξ</span><span>)</span><span></span><span>+</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>ξ</span><span><span>f</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span>′</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span>(</span><span>ξ</span><span>)</span><span></span><span>=</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>0</span></span></span></span>。</p><p><strong>3.</strong> 设 <span><span>ff</span><span><span><span></span><span>f</span></span></span></span> 在 <span><span>[a,b][a,b]</span><span><span><span></span><span>[</span><span>a</span><span>,</span><span></span><span>b</span><span>]</span></span></span></span> 上连续，在 <span><span>(a,b)(a,b)</span><span><span><span></span><span>(</span><span>a</span><span>,</span><span></span><span>b</span><span>)</span></span></span></span> 内可导，<span><span>f(a)=f(b)=0f(a)=f(b)=0</span><span><span><span></span><span>f</span><span>(</span><span>a</span><span>)</span><span></span><span>=</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>f</span><span>(</span><span>b</span><span>)</span><span></span><span>=</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>0</span></span></span></span>。证明存在 <span><span>ξ∈(a,b)\xi\in(a,b)</span><span><span><span></span><span>ξ</span><span></span><span>∈</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>(</span><span>a</span><span>,</span><span></span><span>b</span><span>)</span></span></span></span>，使 <span><span>f′(ξ)=f(ξ)f'(\xi)=f(\xi)</span><span><span><span></span><span><span>f</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span>′</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span>(</span><span>ξ</span><span>)</span><span></span><span>=</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>f</span><span>(</span><span>ξ</span><span>)</span></span></span></span>。</p>
点击查看答案<p>结论即 <span><span>f′(ξ)−f(ξ)=0f'(\xi)-f(\xi)=0</span><span><span><span></span><span><span>f</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span>′</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span>(</span><span>ξ</span><span>)</span><span></span><span>−</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>f</span><span>(</span><span>ξ</span><span>)</span><span></span><span>=</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>0</span></span></span></span>，对应 <span><span>λ=−1\lambda=-1</span><span><span><span></span><span>λ</span><span></span><span>=</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>−</span><span>1</span></span></span></span>，令 <span><span>F(x)=e−xf(x)F(x)=e^{-x}f(x)</span><span><span><span></span><span>F</span><span>(</span><span>x</span><span>)</span><span></span><span>=</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span>e</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span>−</span><span>x</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span>f</span><span>(</span><span>x</span><span>)</span></span></span></span>。<span><span>F(a)=F(b)=0F(a)=F(b)=0</span><span><span><span></span><span>F</span><span>(</span><span>a</span><span>)</span><span></span><span>=</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>F</span><span>(</span><span>b</span><span>)</span><span></span><span>=</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>0</span></span></span></span>，由罗尔，存在 <span><span>ξ\xi</span><span><span><span></span><span>ξ</span></span></span></span> 使</p><p><span><span>F′(ξ)=e−ξ[f′(ξ)−f(ξ)]=0.F'(\xi)=e^{-\xi}\bigl[f'(\xi)-f(\xi)\bigr]=0.</span><span><span><span></span><span><span>F</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span>′</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span>(</span><span>ξ</span><span>)</span><span></span><span>=</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span>e</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span>−</span><span>ξ</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span><span>[</span></span><span><span>f</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span>′</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span>(</span><span>ξ</span><span>)</span><span></span><span>−</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>f</span><span>(</span><span>ξ</span><span>)</span><span><span>]</span></span><span></span><span>=</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>0.</span></span></span></span></p><p><span><span>e−ξ≠0e^{-\xi}\ne0</span><span><span><span></span><span><span>e</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span>−</span><span>ξ</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span><span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span><span>=</span></span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>0</span></span></span></span>，所以 <span><span>f′(ξ)=f(ξ)f'(\xi)=f(\xi)</span><span><span><span></span><span><span>f</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span>′</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span>(</span><span>ξ</span><span>)</span><span></span><span>=</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>f</span><span>(</span><span>ξ</span><span>)</span></span></span></span>。</p><p><strong>4.</strong> 设 <span><span>ff</span><span><span><span></span><span>f</span></span></span></span> 在 <span><span>[a,b][a,b]</span><span><span><span></span><span>[</span><span>a</span><span>,</span><span></span><span>b</span><span>]</span></span></span></span> 上二阶可导，<span><span>f(a)=f(b)=0f(a)=f(b)=0</span><span><span><span></span><span>f</span><span>(</span><span>a</span><span>)</span><span></span><span>=</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>f</span><span>(</span><span>b</span><span>)</span><span></span><span>=</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>0</span></span></span></span>，且存在 <span><span>c∈(a,b)c\in(a,b)</span><span><span><span></span><span>c</span><span></span><span>∈</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>(</span><span>a</span><span>,</span><span></span><span>b</span><span>)</span></span></span></span> 使 <span><span>f(c)&gt;0f(c)&gt;0</span><span><span><span></span><span>f</span><span>(</span><span>c</span><span>)</span><span></span><span>&gt;</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>0</span></span></span></span>。证明存在 <span><span>ξ∈(a,b)\xi\in(a,b)</span><span><span><span></span><span>ξ</span><span></span><span>∈</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>(</span><span>a</span><span>,</span><span></span><span>b</span><span>)</span></span></span></span>，使 <span><span>f′′(ξ)&lt;0f''(\xi)&lt;0</span><span><span><span></span><span><span>f</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span>′′</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span>(</span><span>ξ</span><span>)</span><span></span><span>&lt;</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>0</span></span></span></span>。</p>
点击查看答案<p>在 <span><span>[a,c][a,c]</span><span><span><span></span><span>[</span><span>a</span><span>,</span><span></span><span>c</span><span>]</span></span></span></span> 和 <span><span>[c,b][c,b]</span><span><span><span></span><span>[</span><span>c</span><span>,</span><span></span><span>b</span><span>]</span></span></span></span> 上分别用拉格朗日：</p><p><span><span>f′(ξ1)=f(c)−f(a)c−a&gt;0,f′(ξ2)=f(b)−f(c)b−c&lt;0,f'(\xi_1)=\frac{f(c)-f(a)}{c-a}&gt;0,\qquad f'(\xi_2)=\frac{f(b)-f(c)}{b-c}&lt;0,</span><span><span><span></span><span><span>f</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span>′</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span>(</span><span><span>ξ</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>1</span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span>)</span><span></span><span>=</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span></span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span>c</span><span>−</span><span>a</span></span></span></span><span><span></span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span><span>f</span><span>(</span><span>c</span><span>)</span><span>−</span><span>f</span><span>(</span><span>a</span><span>)</span></span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span></span><span></span><span>&gt;</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>0</span><span>,</span><span></span><span></span><span><span>f</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span>′</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span>(</span><span><span>ξ</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>2</span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span>)</span><span></span><span>=</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span></span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span>b</span><span>−</span><span>c</span></span></span></span><span><span></span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span><span>f</span><span>(</span><span>b</span><span>)</span><span>−</span><span>f</span><span>(</span><span>c</span><span>)</span></span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span></span><span></span><span>&lt;</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>0</span><span>,</span></span></span></span></p><p>其中 <span><span>a&lt;ξ1&lt;c&lt;ξ2&lt;ba&lt;\xi_1&lt;c&lt;\xi_2&lt;b</span><span><span><span></span><span>a</span><span></span><span>&lt;</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span>ξ</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>1</span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span><span>&lt;</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>c</span><span></span><span>&lt;</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span>ξ</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>2</span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span><span>&lt;</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>b</span></span></span></span>。再对 <span><span>f′f'</span><span><span><span></span><span><span>f</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span>′</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span> 在 <span><span>[ξ1,ξ2][\xi_1,\xi_2]</span><span><span><span></span><span>[</span><span><span>ξ</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>1</span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span>,</span><span></span><span><span>ξ</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>2</span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span>]</span></span></span></span> 上用拉格朗日：</p><p><span><span>f′′(ξ)=f′(ξ2)−f′(ξ1)ξ2−ξ1&lt;0.f''(\xi)=\frac{f'(\xi_2)-f'(\xi_1)}{\xi_2-\xi_1}&lt;0.</span><span><span><span></span><span><span>f</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span>′′</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span>(</span><span>ξ</span><span>)</span><span></span><span>=</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span></span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span><span>ξ</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>2</span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span>−</span><span><span>ξ</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>1</span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span><span></span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span><span><span>f</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span>′</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span>(</span><span><span>ξ</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>2</span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span>)</span><span>−</span><span><span>f</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span>′</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span>(</span><span><span>ξ</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>1</span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span>)</span></span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span></span><span></span><span>&lt;</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>0.</span></span></span></span></p><p><strong>5.</strong> 设 <span><span>a&gt;0a&gt;0</span><span><span><span></span><span>a</span><span></span><span>&gt;</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>0</span></span></span></span>，证明方程 <span><span>x3+ax−1=0x^3+ax-1=0</span><span><span><span></span><span><span>x</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>3</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span><span>+</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>a</span><span>x</span><span></span><span>−</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>1</span><span></span><span>=</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>0</span></span></span></span> 在 <span><span>(0,1)(0,1)</span><span><span><span></span><span>(</span><span>0</span><span>,</span><span></span><span>1</span><span>)</span></span></span></span> 内恰有一个实根。</p>
点击查看答案<p><strong>存在</strong>：令 <span><span>f(x)=x3+ax−1f(x)=x^3+ax-1</span><span><span><span></span><span>f</span><span>(</span><span>x</span><span>)</span><span></span><span>=</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span>x</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>3</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span><span>+</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>a</span><span>x</span><span></span><span>−</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>1</span></span></span></span>，<span><span>f(0)=−1&lt;0f(0)=-1&lt;0</span><span><span><span></span><span>f</span><span>(</span><span>0</span><span>)</span><span></span><span>=</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>−</span><span>1</span><span></span><span>&lt;</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>0</span></span></span></span>，<span><span>f(1)=a&gt;0f(1)=a&gt;0</span><span><span><span></span><span>f</span><span>(</span><span>1</span><span>)</span><span></span><span>=</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>a</span><span></span><span>&gt;</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>0</span></span></span></span>，由零点定理至少有一个根。</p><p><strong>唯一</strong>：若有两个根 <span><span>x1&lt;x2x_1&lt;x_2</span><span><span><span></span><span><span>x</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>1</span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span><span>&lt;</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span>x</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>2</span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span>，则 <span><span>f(x1)=f(x2)=0f(x_1)=f(x_2)=0</span><span><span><span></span><span>f</span><span>(</span><span><span>x</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>1</span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span>)</span><span></span><span>=</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>f</span><span>(</span><span><span>x</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>2</span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span>)</span><span></span><span>=</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>0</span></span></span></span>，由罗尔存在 <span><span>ξ\xi</span><span><span><span></span><span>ξ</span></span></span></span> 使 <span><span>f′(ξ)=0f'(\xi)=0</span><span><span><span></span><span><span>f</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span>′</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span>(</span><span>ξ</span><span>)</span><span></span><span>=</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>0</span></span></span></span>。但 <span><span>f′(x)=3x2+a&gt;0f'(x)=3x^2+a&gt;0</span><span><span><span></span><span><span>f</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span>′</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span>(</span><span>x</span><span>)</span><span></span><span>=</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>3</span><span><span>x</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>2</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span><span>+</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>a</span><span></span><span>&gt;</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>0</span></span></span></span>，矛盾。所以恰有一个实根。</p></section>
<section><h2>八、本章小结<a href="#八本章小结"><span>#</span></a></h2><ul>
<li>三个定理的条件都是<strong>闭区间连续、开区间可导</strong>；罗尔 ⊂ 拉格朗日 ⊂ 柯西。</li>
<li>结论只有 <span><span>ξ\xi</span><span><span><span></span><span>ξ</span></span></span></span> 且等于 <span><span>00</span><span><span><span></span><span>0</span></span></span></span>：用<strong>还原法</strong>造辅助函数，再用罗尔。最常用 <span><span>eλxf(x)e^{\lambda x}f(x)</span><span><span><span></span><span><span>e</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span>λ</span><span>x</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span>f</span><span>(</span><span>x</span><span>)</span></span></span></span> 和 <span><span>xkf(x)x^kf(x)</span><span><span><span></span><span><span>x</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>k</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span>f</span><span>(</span><span>x</span><span>)</span></span></span></span>。</li>
<li>结论含 <span><span>a,ba,b</span><span><span><span></span><span>a</span><span>,</span><span></span><span>b</span></span></span></span>：分离后认出差商，用<strong>拉格朗日</strong>；认出 <span><span>f′g′\dfrac{f'}{g'}</span><span><span><span></span><span><span></span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span>g</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span>′</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span><span></span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span><span>f</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span>′</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span></span></span></span></span>，用<strong>柯西</strong>。</li>
<li>双中值：不要求不同，同一区间用两次定理；要求不同，<strong>找分点</strong>分两段。</li>
<li>高阶导数有零点：<strong>多次罗尔</strong>，逐阶找零点。</li>
<li>拉格朗日还能<strong>证明不等式</strong>（对 <span><span>f′(ξ)f'(\xi)</span><span><span><span></span><span><span>f</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span>′</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span>(</span><span>ξ</span><span>)</span></span></span></span> 放缩）、<strong>求极限</strong>（处理同一函数在两点的差）。</li>
</ul><p>下一篇：<strong>04 导数的应用</strong>（洛必达、泰勒公式、单调性与极值、凹凸性、渐近线、不等式证明）。</p></section>]]></content>
    </entry>
    <entry>
      <id>https://gsxbxsg.github.io/posts/gaoshu-04-applications/</id>
      <title type="text">高数速成复习 04：导数的应用</title>
      <published>2026-10-03T00:00:00.000Z</published>
      <updated>2026-10-03T00:00:00.000Z</updated>
      <author><name>ELEC</name></author>
      <link rel="alternate" href="https://gsxbxsg.github.io/posts/gaoshu-04-applications/"/>
      <summary type="text">导数的应用覆盖面最广。本篇讲洛必达法则、泰勒公式、单调性与极值、凹凸性与拐点、渐近线、曲率，以及不等式证明和方程根的个数这两类大题。</summary>
      <content type="html"><![CDATA[<p>上一篇的中值定理是“工具”，这一篇是用这些工具研究函数：<strong>函数在哪里增减、哪里取极值、图像怎么弯、往远处怎么走</strong>。最后落到两类常考大题：<strong>证明不等式</strong>和<strong>讨论方程根的个数</strong>。</p>
<section><h2>一、本章地图<a href="#一本章地图"><span>#</span></a></h2>

<table><thead><tr><th>模块</th><th>要掌握什么</th><th>常见考法</th></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td>洛必达法则</td><td>条件、与等价替换配合</td><td>求极限</td></tr><tr><td>泰勒公式</td><td>佩亚诺余项、拉格朗日余项</td><td>求极限、证明题</td></tr><tr><td>单调性与极值</td><td>单调区间、极值的三种判别法</td><td>选择、填空、解答</td></tr><tr><td>最值</td><td>闭区间最值、唯一驻点</td><td>填空、应用题</td></tr><tr><td>凹凸性与拐点</td><td>二阶导数判别</td><td>选择、填空</td></tr><tr><td>渐近线</td><td>水平、铅直、斜渐近线</td><td>选择题数条数</td></tr><tr><td>曲率</td><td>曲率公式、曲率半径</td><td>填空（数一）</td></tr><tr><td>不等式与根的个数</td><td>构造函数、研究单调性和最值</td><td>解答题</td></tr></tbody></table><p>证明不等式选方法：</p><div><div><div><div><span></span></div><div><span></span></div><div><span></span></div><div><span></span></div><div><span></span></div><div><span></span></div><div><span><p>要证的不等式</p></span></div><div><span><p>含变量 x 的函数不等式</p></span></div><div><span><p>两个常数比大小，如 e^π 与 π^e</p></span></div><div><span><p>含 f''，或已知高阶导数信息</p></span></div><div><span><p>移项作 F(x)，看 F 在端点的值<br /><br />用单调性或最值</p></span></div><div><span><p>把其中一个数换成变量 x<br /><br />转成函数的单调性</p></span></div><div><span><p>泰勒公式（拉格朗日余项）<br /><br />或凹凸性</p></span></div>
</div><div><div><span></span></div><div><span></span></div><div><span></span></div><div><span></span></div><div><span></span></div><div><span></span></div><div><span><p>要证的不等式</p></span></div><div><span><p>含变量 x 的函数不等式</p></span></div><div><span><p>两个常数比大小，如 e^π 与 π^e</p></span></div><div><span><p>含 f''，或已知高阶导数信息</p></span></div><div><span><p>移项作 F(x)，看 F 在端点的值<br /><br />用单调性或最值</p></span></div><div><span><p>把其中一个数换成变量 x<br /><br />转成函数的单调性</p></span></div><div><span><p>泰勒公式（拉格朗日余项）<br /><br />或凹凸性</p></span></div>
</div></div></div></section>
<section><h2>二、核心概念<a href="#二核心概念"><span>#</span></a></h2><section><h3>1. 洛必达法则<a href="#1-洛必达法则"><span>#</span></a></h3><p>若 <span><span>x→x0x\to x_0</span><span><span><span></span><span>x</span><span></span><span>→</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span>x</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>0</span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span>（或 <span><span>x→∞x\to\infty</span><span><span><span></span><span>x</span><span></span><span>→</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>∞</span></span></span></span>）时：</p><ol>
<li><span><span>f(x)f(x)</span><span><span><span></span><span>f</span><span>(</span><span>x</span><span>)</span></span></span></span> 与 <span><span>g(x)g(x)</span><span><span><span></span><span>g</span><span>(</span><span>x</span><span>)</span></span></span></span> 同时趋于 <span><span>00</span><span><span><span></span><span>0</span></span></span></span>，或同时趋于 <span><span>∞\infty</span><span><span><span></span><span>∞</span></span></span></span>；</li>
<li><span><span>f,gf,g</span><span><span><span></span><span>f</span><span>,</span><span></span><span>g</span></span></span></span> 在 <span><span>x0x_0</span><span><span><span></span><span><span>x</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>0</span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span> 的去心邻域内可导，且 <span><span>g′(x)≠0g'(x)\ne0</span><span><span><span></span><span><span>g</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span>′</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span>(</span><span>x</span><span>)</span><span></span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span><span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span><span>=</span></span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>0</span></span></span></span>；</li>
<li><span><span>lim⁡f′(x)g′(x)\lim\dfrac{f'(x)}{g'(x)}</span><span><span><span></span><span>lim</span><span></span><span><span></span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span>g</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span>′</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span>(</span><span>x</span><span>)</span></span></span><span><span></span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span><span>f</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span>′</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span>(</span><span>x</span><span>)</span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span></span></span></span></span> 存在，或为 <span><span>∞\infty</span><span><span><span></span><span>∞</span></span></span></span>，</li>
</ol><p>则</p><span><span><span>lim⁡f(x)g(x)=lim⁡f′(x)g′(x).\lim\frac{f(x)}{g(x)}=\lim\frac{f'(x)}{g'(x)}.</span><span><span><span></span><span>lim</span><span></span><span><span></span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>g</span><span>(</span><span>x</span><span>)</span></span></span><span><span></span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span>f</span><span>(</span><span>x</span><span>)</span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span></span><span></span><span>=</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>lim</span><span></span><span><span></span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span>g</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span>′</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span>(</span><span>x</span><span>)</span></span></span><span><span></span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span><span>f</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span>′</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span>(</span><span>x</span><span>)</span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span></span><span>.</span></span></span></span></span><div><div><div></div><div>用洛必达前先做两件事</div></div><div><ol>
<li><strong>先化简</strong>：能代入的非零因子先代入，能等价替换的先替换。</li>
<li><strong>每求一次导都要重新判断类型</strong>：不再是 0/0 或 ∞/∞ 就停下。</li>
</ol></div></div></section><section><h3>2. 泰勒公式<a href="#2-泰勒公式"><span>#</span></a></h3><p>设 <span><span>ff</span><span><span><span></span><span>f</span></span></span></span> 在 <span><span>x0x_0</span><span><span><span></span><span><span>x</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>0</span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span> 附近有足够阶的导数，则</p><span><span><span>f(x)=∑k=0nf(k)(x0)k!(x−x0)k+Rn(x).f(x)=\sum_{k=0}^{n}\frac{f^{(k)}(x_0)}{k!}(x-x_0)^k+R_n(x).</span><span><span><span></span><span>f</span><span>(</span><span>x</span><span>)</span><span></span><span>=</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span>k</span><span>=</span><span>0</span></span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span>∑</span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span><span>n</span></span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span><span><span></span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>k</span><span>!</span></span></span><span><span></span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span><span>f</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span>(</span><span>k</span><span>)</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span>(</span><span><span>x</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>0</span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span>)</span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span></span><span>(</span><span>x</span><span></span><span>−</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span>x</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>0</span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span><span>)</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>k</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span><span>+</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span>R</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>n</span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span>(</span><span>x</span><span>)</span><span>.</span></span></span></span></span><p>余项有两种写法：</p>

<table><thead><tr><th>余项</th><th>形式</th><th>条件</th><th>用途</th></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td>佩亚诺余项</td><td><span><span>Rn(x)=o((x−x0)n)R_n(x)=o\bigl((x-x_0)^n\bigr)</span><span><span><span></span><span><span>R</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>n</span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span>(</span><span>x</span><span>)</span><span></span><span>=</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>o</span><span><span>(</span></span><span>(</span><span>x</span><span></span><span>−</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span>x</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>0</span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span><span>)</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>n</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span><span>)</span></span></span></span></span></td><td><span><span>ff</span><span><span><span></span><span>f</span></span></span></span> 在 <span><span>x0x_0</span><span><span><span></span><span><span>x</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>0</span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span> 处 <span><span>nn</span><span><span><span></span><span>n</span></span></span></span> 阶可导</td><td><strong>局部</strong>：求极限、判断阶、判断极值</td></tr><tr><td>拉格朗日余项</td><td><span><span>Rn(x)=f(n+1)(ξ)(n+1)!(x−x0)n+1R_n(x)=\dfrac{f^{(n+1)}(\xi)}{(n+1)!}(x-x_0)^{n+1}</span><span><span><span></span><span><span>R</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>n</span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span>(</span><span>x</span><span>)</span><span></span><span>=</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span></span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>(</span><span>n</span><span></span><span>+</span><span></span><span>1</span><span>)!</span></span></span><span><span></span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span><span>f</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span>(</span><span>n</span><span>+</span><span>1</span><span>)</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span>(</span><span>ξ</span><span>)</span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span></span><span>(</span><span>x</span><span></span><span>−</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span>x</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>0</span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span><span>)</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span>n</span><span>+</span><span>1</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span>，<span><span>ξ\xi</span><span><span><span></span><span>ξ</span></span></span></span> 在 <span><span>x0x_0</span><span><span><span></span><span><span>x</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>0</span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span> 与 <span><span>xx</span><span><span><span></span><span>x</span></span></span></span> 之间</td><td><span><span>ff</span><span><span><span></span><span>f</span></span></span></span> 有 <span><span>n+1n+1</span><span><span><span></span><span>n</span><span></span><span>+</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>1</span></span></span></span> 阶导数</td><td><strong>整体</strong>：证明不等式、估计误差</td></tr></tbody></table><p><span><span>x0=0x_0=0</span><span><span><span></span><span><span>x</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>0</span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span><span>=</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>0</span></span></span></span> 时称为<strong>麦克劳林公式</strong>，第 01 篇的常用展开式就是它。</p><p>大白话：泰勒公式就是<strong>用多项式去逼近函数</strong>。<span><span>n=0n=0</span><span><span><span></span><span>n</span><span></span><span>=</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>0</span></span></span></span> 时的拉格朗日余项形式就是拉格朗日中值定理。</p></section><section><h3>3. 单调性<a href="#3-单调性"><span>#</span></a></h3><p>在区间 <span><span>II</span><span><span><span></span><span>I</span></span></span></span> 内，<span><span>f′(x)&gt;0⇒ff'(x)&gt;0\Rightarrow f</span><span><span><span></span><span><span>f</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span>′</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span>(</span><span>x</span><span>)</span><span></span><span>&gt;</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>0</span><span></span><span>⇒</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>f</span></span></span></span> 单调增；<span><span>f′(x)&lt;0⇒ff'(x)&lt;0\Rightarrow f</span><span><span><span></span><span><span>f</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span>′</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span>(</span><span>x</span><span>)</span><span></span><span>&lt;</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>0</span><span></span><span>⇒</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>f</span></span></span></span> 单调减。</p><p>个别点处 <span><span>f′(x)=0f'(x)=0</span><span><span><span></span><span><span>f</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span>′</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span>(</span><span>x</span><span>)</span><span></span><span>=</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>0</span></span></span></span> 不影响单调性。例如 <span><span>x3x^3</span><span><span><span></span><span><span>x</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>3</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span> 在 <span><span>x=0x=0</span><span><span><span></span><span>x</span><span></span><span>=</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>0</span></span></span></span> 处导数为 <span><span>00</span><span><span><span></span><span>0</span></span></span></span>，但它在整个实数轴上单调增。</p></section><section><h3>4. 极值<a href="#4-极值"><span>#</span></a></h3><p>若在 <span><span>x0x_0</span><span><span><span></span><span><span>x</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>0</span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span> 的某个去心邻域内 <span><span>f(x)&lt;f(x0)f(x)&lt;f(x_0)</span><span><span><span></span><span>f</span><span>(</span><span>x</span><span>)</span><span></span><span>&lt;</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>f</span><span>(</span><span><span>x</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>0</span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span>)</span></span></span></span>，称 <span><span>f(x0)f(x_0)</span><span><span><span></span><span>f</span><span>(</span><span><span>x</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>0</span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span>)</span></span></span></span> 为<strong>极大值</strong>；反之为极小值。极值是<strong>局部</strong>概念。</p><p>极值点只可能出现在两类点：</p><ul>
<li><strong>驻点</strong>：<span><span>f′(x0)=0f'(x_0)=0</span><span><span><span></span><span><span>f</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span>′</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span>(</span><span><span>x</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>0</span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span>)</span><span></span><span>=</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>0</span></span></span></span>；</li>
<li><strong>不可导点</strong>。</li>
</ul><p>判断这些候选点是不是极值点，有三种方法：</p>

<table><thead><tr><th>方法</th><th>条件</th><th>结论</th></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td>第一充分条件</td><td><span><span>f′f'</span><span><span><span></span><span><span>f</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span>′</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span> 在 <span><span>x0x_0</span><span><span><span></span><span><span>x</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>0</span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span> 两侧变号</td><td>左正右负为极大，左负右正为极小</td></tr><tr><td>第二充分条件</td><td><span><span>f′(x0)=0f'(x_0)=0</span><span><span><span></span><span><span>f</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span>′</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span>(</span><span><span>x</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>0</span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span>)</span><span></span><span>=</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>0</span></span></span></span>，<span><span>f′′(x0)≠0f''(x_0)\ne0</span><span><span><span></span><span><span>f</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span>′′</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span>(</span><span><span>x</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>0</span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span>)</span><span></span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span><span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span><span>=</span></span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>0</span></span></span></span></td><td><span><span>f′′(x0)&lt;0f''(x_0)&lt;0</span><span><span><span></span><span><span>f</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span>′′</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span>(</span><span><span>x</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>0</span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span>)</span><span></span><span>&lt;</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>0</span></span></span></span> 极大，<span><span>f′′(x0)&gt;0f''(x_0)&gt;0</span><span><span><span></span><span><span>f</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span>′′</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span>(</span><span><span>x</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>0</span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span>)</span><span></span><span>&gt;</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>0</span></span></span></span> 极小</td></tr><tr><td>高阶判别法</td><td><span><span>f′(x0)=⋯=f(n−1)(x0)=0f'(x_0)=\cdots=f^{(n-1)}(x_0)=0</span><span><span><span></span><span><span>f</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span>′</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span>(</span><span><span>x</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>0</span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span>)</span><span></span><span>=</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>⋯</span><span></span><span>=</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span>f</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span>(</span><span>n</span><span>−</span><span>1</span><span>)</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span>(</span><span><span>x</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>0</span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span>)</span><span></span><span>=</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>0</span></span></span></span>，<span><span>f(n)(x0)≠0f^{(n)}(x_0)\ne0</span><span><span><span></span><span><span>f</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span>(</span><span>n</span><span>)</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span>(</span><span><span>x</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>0</span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span>)</span><span></span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span><span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span><span>=</span></span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>0</span></span></span></span></td><td><span><span>nn</span><span><span><span></span><span>n</span></span></span></span> 为偶数时是极值点（<span><span>f(n)&gt;0f^{(n)}&gt;0</span><span><span><span></span><span><span>f</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span>(</span><span>n</span><span>)</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span><span>&gt;</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>0</span></span></span></span> 极小）；<span><span>nn</span><span><span><span></span><span>n</span></span></span></span> 为奇数时不是</td></tr></tbody></table><p>例如 <span><span>x4x^4</span><span><span><span></span><span><span>x</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>4</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span> 在 <span><span>x=0x=0</span><span><span><span></span><span>x</span><span></span><span>=</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>0</span></span></span></span> 处：前三阶导数为 <span><span>00</span><span><span><span></span><span>0</span></span></span></span>，<span><span>f(4)(0)=24&gt;0f^{(4)}(0)=24&gt;0</span><span><span><span></span><span><span>f</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span>(</span><span>4</span><span>)</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span>(</span><span>0</span><span>)</span><span></span><span>=</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>24</span><span></span><span>&gt;</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>0</span></span></span></span>，<span><span>n=4n=4</span><span><span><span></span><span>n</span><span></span><span>=</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>4</span></span></span></span> 为偶数，是极小值点。<span><span>x3x^3</span><span><span><span></span><span><span>x</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>3</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span> 在 <span><span>x=0x=0</span><span><span><span></span><span>x</span><span></span><span>=</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>0</span></span></span></span> 处：<span><span>n=3n=3</span><span><span><span></span><span>n</span><span></span><span>=</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>3</span></span></span></span> 为奇数，不是极值点。</p></section><section><h3>5. 凹凸性与拐点<a href="#5-凹凸性与拐点"><span>#</span></a></h3><div><div><div></div><div>关于“凹”和“凸”</div></div><div><p>本系列采用同济版教材和考研的叫法：<span><span>f′′&gt;0f''&gt;0</span><span><span><span></span><span><span>f</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span>′′</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span><span>&gt;</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>0</span></span></span></span> 时曲线是<strong>凹</strong>的（像碗口朝上），<span><span>f′′&lt;0f''&lt;0</span><span><span><span></span><span><span>f</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span>′′</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span><span>&lt;</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>0</span></span></span></span> 时曲线是<strong>凸</strong>的。有些教材叫法正好相反，做题时以题目定义为准。</p></div></div><ul>
<li>凹：对区间内任意 <span><span>x1≠x2x_1\ne x_2</span><span><span><span></span><span><span>x</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>1</span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span><span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span><span>=</span></span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span>x</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>2</span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span>，<span><span>f(x1+x22)&lt;f(x1)+f(x2)2f\left(\dfrac{x_1+x_2}{2}\right)&lt;\dfrac{f(x_1)+f(x_2)}{2}</span><span><span><span></span><span>f</span><span></span><span><span><span>(</span></span><span><span></span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>2</span></span></span><span><span></span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span><span>x</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>1</span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span><span>+</span><span></span><span><span>x</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>2</span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span></span><span><span>)</span></span></span><span></span><span>&lt;</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span></span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>2</span></span></span><span><span></span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span>f</span><span>(</span><span><span>x</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>1</span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span>)</span><span></span><span>+</span><span></span><span>f</span><span>(</span><span><span>x</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>2</span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span>)</span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span></span></span></span></span>，即<strong>弦在曲线上方</strong>。</li>
<li>判别：<span><span>f′′(x)&gt;0⇒f''(x)&gt;0\Rightarrow</span><span><span><span></span><span><span>f</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span>′′</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span>(</span><span>x</span><span>)</span><span></span><span>&gt;</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>0</span><span></span><span>⇒</span></span></span></span> 凹；<span><span>f′′(x)&lt;0⇒f''(x)&lt;0\Rightarrow</span><span><span><span></span><span><span>f</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span>′′</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span>(</span><span>x</span><span>)</span><span></span><span>&lt;</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>0</span><span></span><span>⇒</span></span></span></span> 凸。</li>
</ul><p><strong>拐点</strong>：曲线凹凸性发生改变的点。候选点为 <span><span>f′′(x0)=0f''(x_0)=0</span><span><span><span></span><span><span>f</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span>′′</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span>(</span><span><span>x</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>0</span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span>)</span><span></span><span>=</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>0</span></span></span></span> 或 <span><span>f′′f''</span><span><span><span></span><span><span>f</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span>′′</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span> 不存在的点，再检查 <span><span>f′′f''</span><span><span><span></span><span><span>f</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span>′′</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span> 在两侧是否<strong>变号</strong>。</p><div><div><div></div><div>拐点要写成坐标</div></div><div><p>拐点是曲线上的点，要写成 <span><span>(x0,f(x0))(x_0,f(x_0))</span><span><span><span></span><span>(</span><span><span>x</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>0</span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span>,</span><span></span><span>f</span><span>(</span><span><span>x</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>0</span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span>))</span></span></span></span>；极值点只写横坐标 <span><span>x0x_0</span><span><span><span></span><span><span>x</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>0</span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span>。</p></div></div></section><section><h3>6. 渐近线<a href="#6-渐近线"><span>#</span></a></h3>

<table><thead><tr><th>类型</th><th>判断方法</th></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td>水平渐近线 <span><span>y=by=b</span><span><span><span></span><span>y</span><span></span><span>=</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>b</span></span></span></span></td><td><span><span>lim⁡x→+∞f(x)=b\lim\limits_{x\to+\infty}f(x)=b</span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span>x</span><span>→</span><span>+</span><span>∞</span></span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span>lim</span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span><span>f</span><span>(</span><span>x</span><span>)</span><span></span><span>=</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>b</span></span></span></span> 或 <span><span>lim⁡x→−∞f(x)=b\lim\limits_{x\to-\infty}f(x)=b</span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span>x</span><span>→</span><span>−</span><span>∞</span></span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span>lim</span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span><span>f</span><span>(</span><span>x</span><span>)</span><span></span><span>=</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>b</span></span></span></span></td></tr><tr><td>铅直渐近线 <span><span>x=x0x=x_0</span><span><span><span></span><span>x</span><span></span><span>=</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span>x</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>0</span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></td><td><span><span>lim⁡x→x0+f(x)=∞\lim\limits_{x\to x_0^+}f(x)=\infty</span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span>x</span><span>→</span><span><span>x</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>0</span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span>+</span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span>lim</span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span><span>f</span><span>(</span><span>x</span><span>)</span><span></span><span>=</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>∞</span></span></span></span> 或 <span><span>lim⁡x→x0−f(x)=∞\lim\limits_{x\to x_0^-}f(x)=\infty</span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span>x</span><span>→</span><span><span>x</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>0</span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span>−</span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span>lim</span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span><span>f</span><span>(</span><span>x</span><span>)</span><span></span><span>=</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>∞</span></span></span></span></td></tr><tr><td>斜渐近线 <span><span>y=kx+by=kx+b</span><span><span><span></span><span>y</span><span></span><span>=</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>k</span><span>x</span><span></span><span>+</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>b</span></span></span></span></td><td><span><span>k=lim⁡f(x)x≠0k=\lim\dfrac{f(x)}{x}\ne0</span><span><span><span></span><span>k</span><span></span><span>=</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>lim</span><span></span><span><span></span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>x</span></span></span><span><span></span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span>f</span><span>(</span><span>x</span><span>)</span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span></span><span></span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span><span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span><span>=</span></span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>0</span></span></span></span>，<span><span>b=lim⁡[f(x)−kx]b=\lim\bigl[f(x)-kx\bigr]</span><span><span><span></span><span>b</span><span></span><span>=</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>lim</span><span><span>[</span></span><span>f</span><span>(</span><span>x</span><span>)</span><span></span><span>−</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>k</span><span>x</span><span><span>]</span></span></span></span></span>，两个极限都要存在</td></tr></tbody></table><p>铅直渐近线的候选点：<strong>分母为 <span><span>00</span><span><span><span></span><span>0</span></span></span></span> 的点、无定义点、定义域的有限端点</strong>。</p></section><section><h3>7. 曲率（数一）<a href="#7-曲率数一"><span>#</span></a></h3><p>曲率 <span><span>KK</span><span><span><span></span><span>K</span></span></span></span> 描述曲线弯曲得有多厉害：直线的曲率为 <span><span>00</span><span><span><span></span><span>0</span></span></span></span>，半径为 <span><span>RR</span><span><span><span></span><span>R</span></span></span></span> 的圆曲率处处为 <span><span>1R\dfrac1R</span><span><span><span></span><span><span></span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>R</span></span></span><span><span></span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span>1</span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span></span></span></span></span>。</p><p>曲率半径 <span><span>ρ=1K\rho=\dfrac1K</span><span><span><span></span><span>ρ</span><span></span><span>=</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span></span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>K</span></span></span><span><span></span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span>1</span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span></span></span></span></span>。曲率圆是在该点与曲线相切、曲率相同、位于曲线凹侧的圆。</p></section></section>
<section><h2>三、必背公式<a href="#三必背公式"><span>#</span></a></h2><div><div><div></div><div>泰勒公式（拉格朗日余项）</div></div><div><p><span><span>f(x)=f(x0)+f′(x0)(x−x0)+⋯+f(n)(x0)n!(x−x0)n+f(n+1)(ξ)(n+1)!(x−x0)n+1f(x)=f(x_0)+f'(x_0)(x-x_0)+\cdots+\frac{f^{(n)}(x_0)}{n!}(x-x_0)^n+\frac{f^{(n+1)}(\xi)}{(n+1)!}(x-x_0)^{n+1}</span><span><span><span></span><span>f</span><span>(</span><span>x</span><span>)</span><span></span><span>=</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>f</span><span>(</span><span><span>x</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>0</span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span>)</span><span></span><span>+</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span>f</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span>′</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span>(</span><span><span>x</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>0</span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span>)</span><span>(</span><span>x</span><span></span><span>−</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span>x</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>0</span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span>)</span><span></span><span>+</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>⋯</span><span></span><span>+</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span></span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span>n</span><span>!</span></span></span></span><span><span></span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span><span><span>f</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span>(</span><span>n</span><span>)</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span>(</span><span><span>x</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>0</span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span>)</span></span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span></span><span>(</span><span>x</span><span></span><span>−</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span>x</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>0</span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span><span>)</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>n</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span><span>+</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span></span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span>(</span><span>n</span><span>+</span><span>1</span><span>)!</span></span></span></span><span><span></span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span><span><span>f</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span>(</span><span>n</span><span>+</span><span>1</span><span>)</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span>(</span><span>ξ</span><span>)</span></span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span></span><span>(</span><span>x</span><span></span><span>−</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span>x</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>0</span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span><span>)</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span>n</span><span>+</span><span>1</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></p></div></div><div><div><div></div><div>斜渐近线</div></div><div><p><span><span>k=lim⁡x→∞f(x)x,b=lim⁡x→∞[f(x)−kx]k=\lim_{x\to\infty}\frac{f(x)}{x},\qquad b=\lim_{x\to\infty}\bigl[f(x)-kx\bigr]</span><span><span><span></span><span>k</span><span></span><span>=</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span>lim</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span>x</span><span>→</span><span>∞</span></span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span><span><span></span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span>x</span></span></span></span><span><span></span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span><span>f</span><span>(</span><span>x</span><span>)</span></span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span></span><span>,</span><span></span><span></span><span>b</span><span></span><span>=</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span>lim</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span>x</span><span>→</span><span>∞</span></span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span><span>[</span></span><span>f</span><span>(</span><span>x</span><span>)</span><span></span><span>−</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>k</span><span>x</span><span><span>]</span></span></span></span></span>
<span><span>+∞+\infty</span><span><span><span></span><span>+</span><span>∞</span></span></span></span> 和 <span><span>−∞-\infty</span><span><span><span></span><span>−</span><span>∞</span></span></span></span> 要分开算。同一方向上，水平渐近线和斜渐近线<strong>不会同时存在</strong>。</p></div></div><div><div><div></div><div>弧微分与曲率</div></div><div><p><span><span>ds=1+y′2 dx,K=∣y′′∣(1+y′2)3/2,ρ=1K\mathrm ds=\sqrt{1+y'^2}\,\mathrm dx,\qquad K=\frac{|y''|}{(1+y'^2)^{3/2}},\qquad \rho=\frac1K</span><span><span><span></span><span>d</span><span>s</span><span></span><span>=</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>1</span><span></span><span>+</span><span></span><span><span>y</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span>′2</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span><span></span><span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span><span>d</span><span>x</span><span>,</span><span></span><span></span><span>K</span><span></span><span>=</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span></span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span>(</span><span>1</span><span>+</span><span><span>y</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span>′2</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span><span>)</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span>3/2</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span><span></span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span><span>∣</span><span><span>y</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span>′′</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span>∣</span></span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span></span><span>,</span><span></span><span></span><span>ρ</span><span></span><span>=</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span></span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span>K</span></span></span></span><span><span></span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span><span>1</span></span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span></span></span></span></span>
参数方程 <span><span>x=x(t), y=y(t)x=x(t),\ y=y(t)</span><span><span><span></span><span>x</span><span></span><span>=</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>x</span><span>(</span><span>t</span><span>)</span><span>,</span><span> </span><span></span><span>y</span><span></span><span>=</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>y</span><span>(</span><span>t</span><span>)</span></span></span></span>：
<span><span>K=∣x′y′′−x′′y′∣(x′2+y′2)3/2K=\frac{|x'y''-x''y'|}{(x'^2+y'^2)^{3/2}}</span><span><span><span></span><span>K</span><span></span><span>=</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span></span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span>(</span><span><span>x</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span>′2</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span>+</span><span><span>y</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span>′2</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span><span>)</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span>3/2</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span><span></span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span><span>∣</span><span><span>x</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span>′</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span><span>y</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span>′′</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span>−</span><span><span>x</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span>′′</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span><span>y</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span>′</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span>∣</span></span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span></span></span></span></span></p></div></div></section>
<section><h2>四、题型与解题套路<a href="#四题型与解题套路"><span>#</span></a></h2><section><h3>题型 1：洛必达与等价替换配合<a href="#题型-1洛必达与等价替换配合"><span>#</span></a></h3><p><strong>例 1</strong> 求 <span><span>lim⁡x→0tan⁡x−xx−sin⁡x\displaystyle\lim_{x\to0}\frac{\tan x-x}{x-\sin x}</span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span>x</span><span>→</span><span>0</span></span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span>lim</span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span><span><span></span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>x</span><span></span><span>−</span><span></span><span>sin</span><span></span><span>x</span></span></span><span><span></span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span>tan</span><span></span><span>x</span><span></span><span>−</span><span></span><span>x</span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span></span></span></span></span>。</p><p><strong>解</strong> 0/0 型，先用一次洛必达：</p><span><span><span>lim⁡x→0sec⁡2x−11−cos⁡x=lim⁡x→0tan⁡2x1−cos⁡x.\lim_{x\to0}\frac{\sec^2x-1}{1-\cos x}=\lim_{x\to0}\frac{\tan^2x}{1-\cos x}.</span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span>x</span><span>→</span><span>0</span></span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span>lim</span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span><span><span></span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>1</span><span></span><span>−</span><span></span><span>cos</span><span></span><span>x</span></span></span><span><span></span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span><span>sec</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>2</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span><span>x</span><span></span><span>−</span><span></span><span>1</span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span></span><span></span><span>=</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span>x</span><span>→</span><span>0</span></span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span>lim</span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span><span><span></span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>1</span><span></span><span>−</span><span></span><span>cos</span><span></span><span>x</span></span></span><span><span></span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span><span>tan</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>2</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span><span>x</span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span></span><span>.</span></span></span></span></span><p>此时分子分母都是乘积形式，直接等价替换：<span><span>x2x22=2\dfrac{x^2}{\frac{x^2}{2}}=\boxed2</span><span><span><span></span><span><span></span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span>2</span></span></span></span><span><span></span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span><span><span>x</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>2</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span></span></span></span><span><span></span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span><span>x</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>2</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span></span><span></span><span>=</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span><span>2</span></span></span></span></span><span><span></span><span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span>。</p><p>验证：用第 01 篇的结论，<span><span>x33x36=2\dfrac{\frac{x^3}{3}}{\frac{x^3}{6}}=2</span><span><span><span></span><span><span></span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span>6</span></span></span></span><span><span></span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span><span><span>x</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>3</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span></span></span></span><span><span></span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span>3</span></span></span></span><span><span></span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span><span><span>x</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>3</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span></span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span></span><span></span><span>=</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>2</span></span></span></span>，一致。</p><div><div><div></div><div>先洛一次，再换</div></div><div><p>洛必达一次后，往往就出现了可以等价替换的乘积因子。不要一直求导下去，越求越复杂。</p></div></div><p><strong>例 2</strong> 求 <span><span>lim⁡x→+∞x100ex\displaystyle\lim_{x\to+\infty}\frac{x^{100}}{e^x}</span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span>x</span><span>→</span><span>+</span><span>∞</span></span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span>lim</span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span><span><span></span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span>e</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>x</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span><span></span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span><span>x</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span>100</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span></span></span></span></span>。</p><p><strong>解</strong> ∞/∞ 型，连续用 100 次洛必达，分子变成常数 <span><span>100!100!</span><span><span><span></span><span>100</span><span>!</span></span></span></span>，分母仍是 <span><span>exe^x</span><span><span><span></span><span><span>e</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>x</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span>，所以极限为 <span><span>0\boxed0</span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span><span>0</span></span></span></span></span><span><span></span><span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span>。</p><p>这正是第 01 篇“增长速度”结论 <span><span>xb≪exx^b\ll e^x</span><span><span><span></span><span><span>x</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>b</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span><span>≪</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span>e</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>x</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span> 的来源。</p></section><section><h3>题型 2：只知道某点的高阶导数，求极限<a href="#题型-2只知道某点的高阶导数求极限"><span>#</span></a></h3><p><strong>识别特征</strong>：题目只说 <span><span>ff</span><span><span><span></span><span>f</span></span></span></span> 在<strong>某一点</strong>二阶可导，没说 <span><span>f′′f''</span><span><span><span></span><span><span>f</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span>′′</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span> 连续。</p><p><strong>例 3</strong> 设 <span><span>ff</span><span><span><span></span><span>f</span></span></span></span> 在 <span><span>x=0x=0</span><span><span><span></span><span>x</span><span></span><span>=</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>0</span></span></span></span> 处二阶可导，<span><span>f(0)=0f(0)=0</span><span><span><span></span><span>f</span><span>(</span><span>0</span><span>)</span><span></span><span>=</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>0</span></span></span></span>，<span><span>f′(0)=1f'(0)=1</span><span><span><span></span><span><span>f</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span>′</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span>(</span><span>0</span><span>)</span><span></span><span>=</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>1</span></span></span></span>，<span><span>f′′(0)=2f''(0)=2</span><span><span><span></span><span><span>f</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span>′′</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span>(</span><span>0</span><span>)</span><span></span><span>=</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>2</span></span></span></span>。求 <span><span>lim⁡x→0f(x)−xx2\displaystyle\lim_{x\to0}\frac{f(x)-x}{x^2}</span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span>x</span><span>→</span><span>0</span></span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span>lim</span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span><span><span></span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span>x</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>2</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span><span></span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span>f</span><span>(</span><span>x</span><span>)</span><span></span><span>−</span><span></span><span>x</span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span></span></span></span></span>。</p><p><strong>解</strong> <span><span>f′′(0)f''(0)</span><span><span><span></span><span><span>f</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span>′′</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span>(</span><span>0</span><span>)</span></span></span></span> 存在，说明 <span><span>f′f'</span><span><span><span></span><span><span>f</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span>′</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span> 在 <span><span>00</span><span><span><span></span><span>0</span></span></span></span> 附近存在，可以用<strong>一次</strong>洛必达：</p><span><span><span>lim⁡x→0f′(x)−12x=12lim⁡x→0f′(x)−f′(0)x−0=12f′′(0)=1.\lim_{x\to0}\frac{f'(x)-1}{2x}=\frac12\lim_{x\to0}\frac{f'(x)-f'(0)}{x-0}=\frac12f''(0)=\boxed1.</span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span>x</span><span>→</span><span>0</span></span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span>lim</span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span><span><span></span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>2</span><span>x</span></span></span><span><span></span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span><span>f</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span>′</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span>(</span><span>x</span><span>)</span><span></span><span>−</span><span></span><span>1</span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span></span><span></span><span>=</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span></span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>2</span></span></span><span><span></span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span>1</span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span></span><span></span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span>x</span><span>→</span><span>0</span></span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span>lim</span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span><span><span></span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>x</span><span></span><span>−</span><span></span><span>0</span></span></span><span><span></span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span><span>f</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span>′</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span>(</span><span>x</span><span>)</span><span></span><span>−</span><span></span><span><span>f</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span>′</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span>(</span><span>0</span><span>)</span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span></span><span></span><span>=</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span></span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>2</span></span></span><span><span></span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span>1</span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span></span><span><span>f</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span>′′</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span>(</span><span>0</span><span>)</span><span></span><span>=</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span><span>1</span></span></span></span></span><span><span></span><span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span><span>.</span></span></span></span></span><p>第二步不能再用洛必达，要用<strong>导数定义</strong>。</p><div><div><div></div><div>为什么不能洛两次</div></div><div><p>如果洛两次，得到 <span><span>lim⁡x→0f′′(x)2\lim\limits_{x\to0}\dfrac{f''(x)}{2}</span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span>x</span><span>→</span><span>0</span></span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span>lim</span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span><span><span></span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>2</span></span></span><span><span></span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span><span>f</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span>′′</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span>(</span><span>x</span><span>)</span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span></span></span></span></span>。这要求 <span><span>f′′f''</span><span><span><span></span><span><span>f</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span>′′</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span> 在 <span><span>00</span><span><span><span></span><span>0</span></span></span></span> 附近存在且在 <span><span>00</span><span><span><span></span><span>0</span></span></span></span> 处连续，而题目只给了 <span><span>f′′(0)f''(0)</span><span><span><span></span><span><span>f</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span>′′</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span>(</span><span>0</span><span>)</span></span></span></span> 存在。结果碰巧相同，但过程会被扣分。</p><p>另一种做法：用佩亚诺余项的泰勒公式，<span><span>f(x)=x+x2+o(x2)f(x)=x+x^2+o(x^2)</span><span><span><span></span><span>f</span><span>(</span><span>x</span><span>)</span><span></span><span>=</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>x</span><span></span><span>+</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span>x</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>2</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span><span>+</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>o</span><span>(</span><span><span>x</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>2</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span>)</span></span></span></span>，直接得到 <span><span>11</span><span><span><span></span><span>1</span></span></span></span>。</p></div></div></section><section><h3>题型 3：求单调区间与极值<a href="#题型-3求单调区间与极值"><span>#</span></a></h3><p><strong>解法步骤</strong>：</p><ol>
<li>求定义域；</li>
<li>求 <span><span>f′(x)f'(x)</span><span><span><span></span><span><span>f</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span>′</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span>(</span><span>x</span><span>)</span></span></span></span>，找出<strong>驻点</strong>和<strong>不可导点</strong>；</li>
<li>用这些点把定义域分段，列表判断 <span><span>f′f'</span><span><span><span></span><span><span>f</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span>′</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span> 的符号；</li>
<li>写出单调区间和极值。</li>
</ol><p><strong>例 4</strong> 求 <span><span>f(x)=x23(x−5)f(x)=x^{\frac23}(x-5)</span><span><span><span></span><span>f</span><span>(</span><span>x</span><span>)</span><span></span><span>=</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span>x</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span>3</span></span></span></span><span><span></span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span><span>2</span></span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span>(</span><span>x</span><span></span><span>−</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>5</span><span>)</span></span></span></span> 的单调区间与极值。</p><p><strong>解</strong> 定义域为 <span><span>R\mathbb R</span><span><span><span></span><span>R</span></span></span></span>。<span><span>f(x)=x53−5x23f(x)=x^{\frac53}-5x^{\frac23}</span><span><span><span></span><span>f</span><span>(</span><span>x</span><span>)</span><span></span><span>=</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span>x</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span>3</span></span></span></span><span><span></span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span><span>5</span></span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span><span>−</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>5</span><span><span>x</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span>3</span></span></span></span><span><span></span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span><span>2</span></span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span>，</p><span><span><span>f′(x)=53x23−103x−13=5(x−2)3x3.f'(x)=\frac53x^{\frac23}-\frac{10}{3}x^{-\frac13}=\frac{5(x-2)}{3\sqrt[3]x}.</span><span><span><span></span><span><span>f</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span>′</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span>(</span><span>x</span><span>)</span><span></span><span>=</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span></span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>3</span></span></span><span><span></span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span>5</span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span></span><span><span>x</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span>3</span></span></span></span><span><span></span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span><span>2</span></span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span><span>−</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span></span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>3</span></span></span><span><span></span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span>10</span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span></span><span><span>x</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span>−</span><span><span></span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span>3</span></span></span></span><span><span></span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span><span>1</span></span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span><span>=</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span></span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>3</span><span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span>3</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>x</span></span></span><span><span></span><span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span><span></span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span>5</span><span>(</span><span>x</span><span></span><span>−</span><span></span><span>2</span><span>)</span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span></span><span>.</span></span></span></span></span><p>驻点 <span><span>x=2x=2</span><span><span><span></span><span>x</span><span></span><span>=</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>2</span></span></span></span>，不可导点 <span><span>x=0x=0</span><span><span><span></span><span>x</span><span></span><span>=</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>0</span></span></span></span>。列表：</p>

<table><thead><tr><th>区间</th><th><span><span>(−∞,0)(-\infty,0)</span><span><span><span></span><span>(</span><span>−</span><span>∞</span><span>,</span><span></span><span>0</span><span>)</span></span></span></span></th><th><span><span>00</span><span><span><span></span><span>0</span></span></span></span></th><th><span><span>(0,2)(0,2)</span><span><span><span></span><span>(</span><span>0</span><span>,</span><span></span><span>2</span><span>)</span></span></span></span></th><th><span><span>22</span><span><span><span></span><span>2</span></span></span></span></th><th><span><span>(2,+∞)(2,+\infty)</span><span><span><span></span><span>(</span><span>2</span><span>,</span><span></span><span>+</span><span>∞</span><span>)</span></span></span></span></th></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td><span><span>f′f'</span><span><span><span></span><span><span>f</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span>′</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></td><td><span><span>++</span><span><span><span></span><span>+</span></span></span></span></td><td>不存在</td><td><span><span>−-</span><span><span><span></span><span>−</span></span></span></span></td><td><span><span>00</span><span><span><span></span><span>0</span></span></span></span></td><td><span><span>++</span><span><span><span></span><span>+</span></span></span></span></td></tr><tr><td><span><span>ff</span><span><span><span></span><span>f</span></span></span></span></td><td>增</td><td>极大值 <span><span>00</span><span><span><span></span><span>0</span></span></span></span></td><td>减</td><td>极小值 <span><span>−343-3\sqrt[3]4</span><span><span><span></span><span>−</span><span>3</span><span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span>3</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>4</span></span></span><span><span></span><span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></td><td>增</td></tr></tbody></table><p>单调增区间为 <span><span>(−∞,0](-\infty,0]</span><span><span><span></span><span>(</span><span>−</span><span>∞</span><span>,</span><span></span><span>0</span><span>]</span></span></span></span> 和 <span><span>[2,+∞)[2,+\infty)</span><span><span><span></span><span>[</span><span>2</span><span>,</span><span></span><span>+</span><span>∞</span><span>)</span></span></span></span>，单调减区间为 <span><span>[0,2][0,2]</span><span><span><span></span><span>[</span><span>0</span><span>,</span><span></span><span>2</span><span>]</span></span></span></span>。极大值 <span><span>f(0)=0f(0)=0</span><span><span><span></span><span>f</span><span>(</span><span>0</span><span>)</span><span></span><span>=</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>0</span></span></span></span>，极小值 <span><span>f(2)=223⋅(−3)=−343f(2)=2^{\frac23}\cdot(-3)=-3\sqrt[3]4</span><span><span><span></span><span>f</span><span>(</span><span>2</span><span>)</span><span></span><span>=</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span>2</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span>3</span></span></span></span><span><span></span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span><span>2</span></span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span><span>⋅</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>(</span><span>−</span><span>3</span><span>)</span><span></span><span>=</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>−</span><span>3</span><span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span>3</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>4</span></span></span><span><span></span><span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span>。</p><div><div><div></div><div>易漏</div></div><div><p>不可导点也可能是极值点。本例 <span><span>x=0x=0</span><span><span><span></span><span>x</span><span></span><span>=</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>0</span></span></span></span> 处导数不存在，却是极大值点。</p></div></div></section><section><h3>题型 4：由极限判断极值<a href="#题型-4由极限判断极值"><span>#</span></a></h3><p><strong>识别特征</strong>：题目没给函数表达式，只给了一个含 <span><span>f(x)−f(x0)f(x)-f(x_0)</span><span><span><span></span><span>f</span><span>(</span><span>x</span><span>)</span><span></span><span>−</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>f</span><span>(</span><span><span>x</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>0</span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span>)</span></span></span></span> 的极限。</p><p><strong>解法</strong>：用<strong>极限的保号性</strong>，判断 <span><span>f(x)−f(x0)f(x)-f(x_0)</span><span><span><span></span><span>f</span><span>(</span><span>x</span><span>)</span><span></span><span>−</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>f</span><span>(</span><span><span>x</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>0</span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span>)</span></span></span></span> 在 <span><span>x0x_0</span><span><span><span></span><span><span>x</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>0</span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span> 附近的符号。</p><p><strong>例 5</strong> 设 <span><span>f(0)=0f(0)=0</span><span><span><span></span><span>f</span><span>(</span><span>0</span><span>)</span><span></span><span>=</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>0</span></span></span></span>，<span><span>lim⁡x→0f(x)1−cos⁡x=2\displaystyle\lim_{x\to0}\frac{f(x)}{1-\cos x}=2</span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span>x</span><span>→</span><span>0</span></span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span>lim</span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span><span><span></span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>1</span><span></span><span>−</span><span></span><span>cos</span><span></span><span>x</span></span></span><span><span></span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span>f</span><span>(</span><span>x</span><span>)</span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span></span><span></span><span>=</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>2</span></span></span></span>。判断 <span><span>x=0x=0</span><span><span><span></span><span>x</span><span></span><span>=</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>0</span></span></span></span> 是否为极值点。</p><p><strong>解</strong> 极限为 <span><span>2&gt;02&gt;0</span><span><span><span></span><span>2</span><span></span><span>&gt;</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>0</span></span></span></span>，由保号性，在 <span><span>00</span><span><span><span></span><span>0</span></span></span></span> 的某个去心邻域内 <span><span>f(x)1−cos⁡x&gt;0\dfrac{f(x)}{1-\cos x}&gt;0</span><span><span><span></span><span><span></span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>1</span><span></span><span>−</span><span></span><span>cos</span><span></span><span>x</span></span></span><span><span></span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span>f</span><span>(</span><span>x</span><span>)</span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span></span><span></span><span>&gt;</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>0</span></span></span></span>。而 <span><span>1−cos⁡x&gt;01-\cos x&gt;0</span><span><span><span></span><span>1</span><span></span><span>−</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>cos</span><span></span><span>x</span><span></span><span>&gt;</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>0</span></span></span></span>，所以 <span><span>f(x)&gt;0=f(0)f(x)&gt;0=f(0)</span><span><span><span></span><span>f</span><span>(</span><span>x</span><span>)</span><span></span><span>&gt;</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>0</span><span></span><span>=</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>f</span><span>(</span><span>0</span><span>)</span></span></span></span>。</p><p>因此 <span><span>x=0x=0</span><span><span><span></span><span>x</span><span></span><span>=</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>0</span></span></span></span> 是<strong>极小值点</strong>。</p><p>顺便还能得到 <span><span>f′(0)=lim⁡x→0f(x)x=lim⁡x→0f(x)1−cos⁡x⋅1−cos⁡xx=2⋅0=0f'(0)=\lim\limits_{x\to0}\dfrac{f(x)}{x}=\lim\limits_{x\to0}\dfrac{f(x)}{1-\cos x}\cdot\dfrac{1-\cos x}{x}=2\cdot0=0</span><span><span><span></span><span><span>f</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span>′</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span>(</span><span>0</span><span>)</span><span></span><span>=</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span>x</span><span>→</span><span>0</span></span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span>lim</span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span><span><span></span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>x</span></span></span><span><span></span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span>f</span><span>(</span><span>x</span><span>)</span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span></span><span></span><span>=</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span>x</span><span>→</span><span>0</span></span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span>lim</span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span><span><span></span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>1</span><span></span><span>−</span><span></span><span>cos</span><span></span><span>x</span></span></span><span><span></span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span>f</span><span>(</span><span>x</span><span>)</span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span></span><span></span><span>⋅</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span></span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>x</span></span></span><span><span></span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span>1</span><span></span><span>−</span><span></span><span>cos</span><span></span><span>x</span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span></span><span></span><span>=</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>2</span><span></span><span>⋅</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>0</span><span></span><span>=</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>0</span></span></span></span>。</p></section><section><h3>题型 5：闭区间上的最值<a href="#题型-5闭区间上的最值"><span>#</span></a></h3><p><strong>解法</strong>：比较三类点的函数值，最大的是最大值，最小的是最小值：<strong>驻点、不可导点、区间端点</strong>。</p><p><strong>例 6</strong> 求 <span><span>f(x)=x3−3xf(x)=x^3-3x</span><span><span><span></span><span>f</span><span>(</span><span>x</span><span>)</span><span></span><span>=</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span>x</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>3</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span><span>−</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>3</span><span>x</span></span></span></span> 在 <span><span>[−2,3][-2,3]</span><span><span><span></span><span>[</span><span>−</span><span>2</span><span>,</span><span></span><span>3</span><span>]</span></span></span></span> 上的最值。</p><p><strong>解</strong> <span><span>f′(x)=3x2−3=0f'(x)=3x^2-3=0</span><span><span><span></span><span><span>f</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span>′</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span>(</span><span>x</span><span>)</span><span></span><span>=</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>3</span><span><span>x</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>2</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span><span>−</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>3</span><span></span><span>=</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>0</span></span></span></span>，驻点 <span><span>x=±1x=\pm1</span><span><span><span></span><span>x</span><span></span><span>=</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>±</span><span>1</span></span></span></span>。计算：</p><span><span><span>f(−2)=−2,f(−1)=2,f(1)=−2,f(3)=18.f(-2)=-2,\quad f(-1)=2,\quad f(1)=-2,\quad f(3)=18.</span><span><span><span></span><span>f</span><span>(</span><span>−</span><span>2</span><span>)</span><span></span><span>=</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>−</span><span>2</span><span>,</span><span></span><span></span><span>f</span><span>(</span><span>−</span><span>1</span><span>)</span><span></span><span>=</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>2</span><span>,</span><span></span><span></span><span>f</span><span>(</span><span>1</span><span>)</span><span></span><span>=</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>−</span><span>2</span><span>,</span><span></span><span></span><span>f</span><span>(</span><span>3</span><span>)</span><span></span><span>=</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>18.</span></span></span></span></span><p>最大值为 <span><span>18\boxed{18}</span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span><span>18</span></span></span></span></span><span><span></span><span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span>，最小值为 <span><span>−2\boxed{-2}</span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span><span>−</span><span>2</span></span></span></span></span><span><span></span><span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span>。</p><div><div><div></div><div>唯一驻点</div></div><div><p>若 <span><span>ff</span><span><span><span></span><span>f</span></span></span></span> 在区间内只有<strong>一个</strong>驻点，且它是极大（小）值点，那么它就是最大（小）值点。应用题常用这个结论，不用再比较端点。</p></div></div></section><section><h3>题型 6：凹凸区间与拐点<a href="#题型-6凹凸区间与拐点"><span>#</span></a></h3><p><strong>例 7</strong> 求 <span><span>y=x4−2x3+1y=x^4-2x^3+1</span><span><span><span></span><span>y</span><span></span><span>=</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span>x</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>4</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span><span>−</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>2</span><span><span>x</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>3</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span><span>+</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>1</span></span></span></span> 的凹凸区间与拐点。</p><p><strong>解</strong> <span><span>y′=4x3−6x2y'=4x^3-6x^2</span><span><span><span></span><span><span>y</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span>′</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span><span>=</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>4</span><span><span>x</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>3</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span><span>−</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>6</span><span><span>x</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>2</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span>，<span><span>y′′=12x2−12x=12x(x−1)y''=12x^2-12x=12x(x-1)</span><span><span><span></span><span><span>y</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span>′′</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span><span>=</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>12</span><span><span>x</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>2</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span><span>−</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>12</span><span>x</span><span></span><span>=</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>12</span><span>x</span><span>(</span><span>x</span><span></span><span>−</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>1</span><span>)</span></span></span></span>。<span><span>y′′=0y''=0</span><span><span><span></span><span><span>y</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span>′′</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span><span>=</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>0</span></span></span></span> 的点为 <span><span>x=0,1x=0,1</span><span><span><span></span><span>x</span><span></span><span>=</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>0</span><span>,</span><span></span><span>1</span></span></span></span>。</p>

<table><thead><tr><th>区间</th><th><span><span>(−∞,0)(-\infty,0)</span><span><span><span></span><span>(</span><span>−</span><span>∞</span><span>,</span><span></span><span>0</span><span>)</span></span></span></span></th><th><span><span>(0,1)(0,1)</span><span><span><span></span><span>(</span><span>0</span><span>,</span><span></span><span>1</span><span>)</span></span></span></span></th><th><span><span>(1,+∞)(1,+\infty)</span><span><span><span></span><span>(</span><span>1</span><span>,</span><span></span><span>+</span><span>∞</span><span>)</span></span></span></span></th></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td><span><span>y′′y''</span><span><span><span></span><span><span>y</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span>′′</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></td><td><span><span>++</span><span><span><span></span><span>+</span></span></span></span></td><td><span><span>−-</span><span><span><span></span><span>−</span></span></span></span></td><td><span><span>++</span><span><span><span></span><span>+</span></span></span></span></td></tr><tr><td>曲线</td><td>凹</td><td>凸</td><td>凹</td></tr></tbody></table><p>两侧都变号，所以拐点为 <span><span>(0,1)\boxed{(0,1)}</span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span><span>(</span><span>0</span><span>,</span><span></span><span>1</span><span>)</span></span></span></span></span><span><span></span><span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span> 和 <span><span>(1,0)\boxed{(1,0)}</span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span><span>(</span><span>1</span><span>,</span><span></span><span>0</span><span>)</span></span></span></span></span><span><span></span><span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span>。</p><p><strong>例 8</strong> 求 <span><span>y=x3y=\sqrt[3]x</span><span><span><span></span><span>y</span><span></span><span>=</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span>3</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>x</span></span></span><span><span></span><span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span> 的拐点。</p><p><strong>解</strong> <span><span>y′′=−29x−53y''=-\dfrac29x^{-\frac53}</span><span><span><span></span><span><span>y</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span>′′</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span><span>=</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>−</span><span><span></span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>9</span></span></span><span><span></span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span>2</span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span></span><span><span>x</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span>−</span><span><span></span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span>3</span></span></span></span><span><span></span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span><span>5</span></span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span>，在 <span><span>x=0x=0</span><span><span><span></span><span>x</span><span></span><span>=</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>0</span></span></span></span> 处<strong>不存在</strong>。<span><span>x&lt;0x&lt;0</span><span><span><span></span><span>x</span><span></span><span>&lt;</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>0</span></span></span></span> 时 <span><span>y′′&gt;0y''&gt;0</span><span><span><span></span><span><span>y</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span>′′</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span><span>&gt;</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>0</span></span></span></span>（凹），<span><span>x&gt;0x&gt;0</span><span><span><span></span><span>x</span><span></span><span>&gt;</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>0</span></span></span></span> 时 <span><span>y′′&lt;0y''&lt;0</span><span><span><span></span><span><span>y</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span>′′</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span><span>&lt;</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>0</span></span></span></span>（凸），变号了。</p><p>所以 <span><span>(0,0)(0,0)</span><span><span><span></span><span>(</span><span>0</span><span>,</span><span></span><span>0</span><span>)</span></span></span></span> 是拐点。这个例子说明：<strong><span><span>f′′f''</span><span><span><span></span><span><span>f</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span>′′</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span> 不存在的点也可能是拐点</strong>。</p></section><section><h3>题型 7：求渐近线（数条数）<a href="#题型-7求渐近线数条数"><span>#</span></a></h3><p><strong>解法步骤</strong>：</p><ol>
<li><strong>铅直</strong>：找无定义点，求单侧极限是否为 <span><span>∞\infty</span><span><span><span></span><span>∞</span></span></span></span>；</li>
<li><strong>水平</strong>：分别求 <span><span>x→+∞x\to+\infty</span><span><span><span></span><span>x</span><span></span><span>→</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>+</span><span>∞</span></span></span></span> 和 <span><span>x→−∞x\to-\infty</span><span><span><span></span><span>x</span><span></span><span>→</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>−</span><span>∞</span></span></span></span> 的极限；</li>
<li><strong>斜</strong>：在没有水平渐近线的方向上，求 <span><span>kk</span><span><span><span></span><span>k</span></span></span></span> 和 <span><span>bb</span><span><span><span></span><span>b</span></span></span></span>。</li>
</ol><p><strong>例 9</strong> 求曲线 <span><span>y=1x+ln⁡(1+ex)y=\dfrac1x+\ln(1+e^x)</span><span><span><span></span><span>y</span><span></span><span>=</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span></span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>x</span></span></span><span><span></span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span>1</span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span></span><span></span><span>+</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>ln</span><span>(</span><span>1</span><span></span><span>+</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span>e</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>x</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span>)</span></span></span></span> 的渐近线条数。</p><p><strong>解</strong></p><ul>
<li><strong>铅直</strong>：<span><span>x→0x\to0</span><span><span><span></span><span>x</span><span></span><span>→</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>0</span></span></span></span> 时 <span><span>1x→∞\dfrac1x\to\infty</span><span><span><span></span><span><span></span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>x</span></span></span><span><span></span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span>1</span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span></span><span></span><span>→</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>∞</span></span></span></span>，所以 <span><span>x=0x=0</span><span><span><span></span><span>x</span><span></span><span>=</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>0</span></span></span></span> 是铅直渐近线。</li>
<li><strong><span><span>x→−∞x\to-\infty</span><span><span><span></span><span>x</span><span></span><span>→</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>−</span><span>∞</span></span></span></span></strong>：<span><span>1x→0\dfrac1x\to0</span><span><span><span></span><span><span></span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>x</span></span></span><span><span></span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span>1</span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span></span><span></span><span>→</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>0</span></span></span></span>，<span><span>ln⁡(1+ex)→ln⁡1=0\ln(1+e^x)\to\ln1=0</span><span><span><span></span><span>ln</span><span>(</span><span>1</span><span></span><span>+</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span>e</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>x</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span>)</span><span></span><span>→</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>ln</span><span></span><span>1</span><span></span><span>=</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>0</span></span></span></span>，所以 <span><span>y=0y=0</span><span><span><span></span><span>y</span><span></span><span>=</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>0</span></span></span></span> 是水平渐近线。</li>
<li><strong><span><span>x→+∞x\to+\infty</span><span><span><span></span><span>x</span><span></span><span>→</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>+</span><span>∞</span></span></span></span></strong>：<span><span>y→+∞y\to+\infty</span><span><span><span></span><span>y</span><span></span><span>→</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>+</span><span>∞</span></span></span></span>，没有水平渐近线。求斜渐近线：</li>
</ul><span><span><span>ln⁡(1+ex)=ln⁡[ex(1+e−x)]=x+ln⁡(1+e−x),\ln(1+e^x)=\ln\bigl[e^x(1+e^{-x})\bigr]=x+\ln(1+e^{-x}),</span><span><span><span></span><span>ln</span><span>(</span><span>1</span><span></span><span>+</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span>e</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>x</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span>)</span><span></span><span>=</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>ln</span><span><span>[</span></span><span><span>e</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>x</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span>(</span><span>1</span><span></span><span>+</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span>e</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span>−</span><span>x</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span>)</span><span><span>]</span></span><span></span><span>=</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>x</span><span></span><span>+</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>ln</span><span>(</span><span>1</span><span></span><span>+</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span>e</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span>−</span><span>x</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span>)</span><span>,</span></span></span></span></span><span><span><span>k=lim⁡x→+∞yx=lim⁡x→+∞[1x2+1+ln⁡(1+e−x)x]=1,k=\lim_{x\to+\infty}\frac yx=\lim_{x\to+\infty}\left[\frac1{x^2}+1+\frac{\ln(1+e^{-x})}{x}\right]=1,</span><span><span><span></span><span>k</span><span></span><span>=</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span>x</span><span>→</span><span>+</span><span>∞</span></span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span>lim</span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span><span><span></span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>x</span></span></span><span><span></span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span>y</span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span></span><span></span><span>=</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span>x</span><span>→</span><span>+</span><span>∞</span></span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span>lim</span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span><span><span><span>[</span></span><span><span></span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span>x</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>2</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span><span></span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span>1</span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span></span><span></span><span>+</span><span></span><span>1</span><span></span><span>+</span><span></span><span><span></span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>x</span></span></span><span><span></span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span>ln</span><span>(</span><span>1</span><span></span><span>+</span><span></span><span><span>e</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span>−</span><span>x</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span>)</span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span></span><span><span>]</span></span></span><span></span><span>=</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>1</span><span>,</span></span></span></span></span><span><span><span>b=lim⁡x→+∞(y−x)=lim⁡x→+∞[1x+ln⁡(1+e−x)]=0.b=\lim_{x\to+\infty}(y-x)=\lim_{x\to+\infty}\left[\frac1x+\ln(1+e^{-x})\right]=0.</span><span><span><span></span><span>b</span><span></span><span>=</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span>x</span><span>→</span><span>+</span><span>∞</span></span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span>lim</span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span><span>(</span><span>y</span><span></span><span>−</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>x</span><span>)</span><span></span><span>=</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span>x</span><span>→</span><span>+</span><span>∞</span></span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span>lim</span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span><span><span><span>[</span></span><span><span></span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>x</span></span></span><span><span></span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span>1</span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span></span><span></span><span>+</span><span></span><span>ln</span><span>(</span><span>1</span><span></span><span>+</span><span></span><span><span>e</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span>−</span><span>x</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span>)</span><span><span>]</span></span></span><span></span><span>=</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>0.</span></span></span></span></span><p>所以 <span><span>y=xy=x</span><span><span><span></span><span>y</span><span></span><span>=</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>x</span></span></span></span> 是斜渐近线。</p><p>共 <span><span>3\boxed3</span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span><span>3</span></span></span></span></span><span><span></span><span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span> 条。</p><div><div><div></div><div>处理 <span><span>ln⁡(1+ex)\ln(1+e^x)</span><span><span><span></span><span>ln</span><span>(</span><span>1</span><span></span><span>+</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span>e</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>x</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span>)</span></span></span></span> 的技巧</div></div><div><p><span><span>x→+∞x\to+\infty</span><span><span><span></span><span>x</span><span></span><span>→</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>+</span><span>∞</span></span></span></span> 时，<strong>把 <span><span>exe^x</span><span><span><span></span><span><span>e</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>x</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span> 提出来</strong>：<span><span>ln⁡(1+ex)=x+ln⁡(1+e−x)\ln(1+e^x)=x+\ln(1+e^{-x})</span><span><span><span></span><span>ln</span><span>(</span><span>1</span><span></span><span>+</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span>e</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>x</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span>)</span><span></span><span>=</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>x</span><span></span><span>+</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>ln</span><span>(</span><span>1</span><span></span><span>+</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span>e</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span>−</span><span>x</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span>)</span></span></span></span>。这样斜渐近线一眼就能看出来。</p></div></div></section><section><h3>题型 8：求曲率<a href="#题型-8求曲率"><span>#</span></a></h3><p><strong>例 10</strong> 求抛物线 <span><span>y=x2y=x^2</span><span><span><span></span><span>y</span><span></span><span>=</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span>x</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>2</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span> 在点 <span><span>(1,1)(1,1)</span><span><span><span></span><span>(</span><span>1</span><span>,</span><span></span><span>1</span><span>)</span></span></span></span> 处的曲率和曲率半径。</p><p><strong>解</strong> <span><span>y′=2xy'=2x</span><span><span><span></span><span><span>y</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span>′</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span><span>=</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>2</span><span>x</span></span></span></span>，<span><span>y′′=2y''=2</span><span><span><span></span><span><span>y</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span>′′</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span><span>=</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>2</span></span></span></span>。在 <span><span>x=1x=1</span><span><span><span></span><span>x</span><span></span><span>=</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>1</span></span></span></span> 处 <span><span>y′=2y'=2</span><span><span><span></span><span><span>y</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span>′</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span><span>=</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>2</span></span></span></span>，<span><span>y′′=2y''=2</span><span><span><span></span><span><span>y</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span>′′</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span><span>=</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>2</span></span></span></span>：</p><span><span><span>K=2(1+4)3/2=255,ρ=552.K=\frac{2}{(1+4)^{3/2}}=\boxed{\frac{2}{5\sqrt5}},\qquad\rho=\frac{5\sqrt5}{2}.</span><span><span><span></span><span>K</span><span></span><span>=</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span></span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>(</span><span>1</span><span></span><span>+</span><span></span><span>4</span><span><span>)</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span>3/2</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span><span></span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span>2</span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span></span><span></span><span>=</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>5</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span>5</span></span><span><span></span><span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span><span></span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span>2</span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span><span></span><span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span><span>,</span><span></span><span></span><span>ρ</span><span></span><span>=</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span></span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>2</span></span></span><span><span></span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span>5</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span>5</span></span><span><span></span><span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span></span><span>.</span></span></span></span></span><p>在顶点 <span><span>(0,0)(0,0)</span><span><span><span></span><span>(</span><span>0</span><span>,</span><span></span><span>0</span><span>)</span></span></span></span> 处 <span><span>y′=0y'=0</span><span><span><span></span><span><span>y</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span>′</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span><span>=</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>0</span></span></span></span>，<span><span>K=2K=2</span><span><span><span></span><span>K</span><span></span><span>=</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>2</span></span></span></span>，这是曲率最大的地方：抛物线在顶点处弯得最厉害。</p></section><section><h3>题型 9：用单调性或最值证明不等式<a href="#题型-9用单调性或最值证明不等式"><span>#</span></a></h3><p><strong>解法步骤</strong>：</p><ol>
<li>移项，令 <span><span>F(x)=F(x)=</span><span><span><span></span><span>F</span><span>(</span><span>x</span><span>)</span><span></span><span>=</span></span></span></span> 左边 <span><span>−-</span><span><span><span></span><span>−</span></span></span></span> 右边；</li>
<li>找到一个端点使 <span><span>F=0F=0</span><span><span><span></span><span>F</span><span></span><span>=</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>0</span></span></span></span>（或已知符号）；</li>
<li>证明 <span><span>F′F'</span><span><span><span></span><span><span>F</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span>′</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span> 的符号固定（单调），或求出 <span><span>FF</span><span><span><span></span><span>F</span></span></span></span> 的最小值。</li>
</ol><p><span><span>F′F'</span><span><span><span></span><span><span>F</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span>′</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span> 的符号看不出来时，<strong>再求一次导</strong>，用 <span><span>F′′F''</span><span><span><span></span><span><span>F</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span>′′</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span> 判断 <span><span>F′F'</span><span><span><span></span><span><span>F</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span>′</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span> 的单调性。</p><p><strong>例 11</strong> 证明：当 <span><span>x&gt;0x&gt;0</span><span><span><span></span><span>x</span><span></span><span>&gt;</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>0</span></span></span></span> 时，<span><span>ln⁡(1+x)&gt;x−x22\ln(1+x)&gt;x-\dfrac{x^2}{2}</span><span><span><span></span><span>ln</span><span>(</span><span>1</span><span></span><span>+</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>x</span><span>)</span><span></span><span>&gt;</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>x</span><span></span><span>−</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span></span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>2</span></span></span><span><span></span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span><span>x</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>2</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span></span></span></span></span>。</p><p><strong>证</strong> 令 <span><span>F(x)=ln⁡(1+x)−x+x22F(x)=\ln(1+x)-x+\dfrac{x^2}{2}</span><span><span><span></span><span>F</span><span>(</span><span>x</span><span>)</span><span></span><span>=</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>ln</span><span>(</span><span>1</span><span></span><span>+</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>x</span><span>)</span><span></span><span>−</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>x</span><span></span><span>+</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span></span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>2</span></span></span><span><span></span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span><span>x</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>2</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span></span></span></span></span>，<span><span>F(0)=0F(0)=0</span><span><span><span></span><span>F</span><span>(</span><span>0</span><span>)</span><span></span><span>=</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>0</span></span></span></span>。</p><span><span><span>F′(x)=11+x−1+x=1−(1+x)+x(1+x)1+x=x21+x&gt;0(x&gt;0).F'(x)=\frac{1}{1+x}-1+x=\frac{1-(1+x)+x(1+x)}{1+x}=\frac{x^2}{1+x}&gt;0\quad(x&gt;0).</span><span><span><span></span><span><span>F</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span>′</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span>(</span><span>x</span><span>)</span><span></span><span>=</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span></span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>1</span><span></span><span>+</span><span></span><span>x</span></span></span><span><span></span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span>1</span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span></span><span></span><span>−</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>1</span><span></span><span>+</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>x</span><span></span><span>=</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span></span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>1</span><span></span><span>+</span><span></span><span>x</span></span></span><span><span></span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span>1</span><span></span><span>−</span><span></span><span>(</span><span>1</span><span></span><span>+</span><span></span><span>x</span><span>)</span><span></span><span>+</span><span></span><span>x</span><span>(</span><span>1</span><span></span><span>+</span><span></span><span>x</span><span>)</span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span></span><span></span><span>=</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span></span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>1</span><span></span><span>+</span><span></span><span>x</span></span></span><span><span></span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span><span>x</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>2</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span></span><span></span><span>&gt;</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>0</span><span></span><span>(</span><span>x</span><span></span><span>&gt;</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>0</span><span>)</span><span>.</span></span></span></span></span><p><span><span>FF</span><span><span><span></span><span>F</span></span></span></span> 在 <span><span>[0,+∞)[0,+\infty)</span><span><span><span></span><span>[</span><span>0</span><span>,</span><span></span><span>+</span><span>∞</span><span>)</span></span></span></span> 上单调增，所以 <span><span>x&gt;0x&gt;0</span><span><span><span></span><span>x</span><span></span><span>&gt;</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>0</span></span></span></span> 时 <span><span>F(x)&gt;F(0)=0F(x)&gt;F(0)=0</span><span><span><span></span><span>F</span><span>(</span><span>x</span><span>)</span><span></span><span>&gt;</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>F</span><span>(</span><span>0</span><span>)</span><span></span><span>=</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>0</span></span></span></span>。</p><p><strong>例 12</strong> 证明：对一切实数 <span><span>xx</span><span><span><span></span><span>x</span></span></span></span>，<span><span>ex≥1+xe^x\ge1+x</span><span><span><span></span><span><span>e</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>x</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span><span>≥</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>1</span><span></span><span>+</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>x</span></span></span></span>。</p><p><strong>证</strong> 令 <span><span>F(x)=ex−1−xF(x)=e^x-1-x</span><span><span><span></span><span>F</span><span>(</span><span>x</span><span>)</span><span></span><span>=</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span>e</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>x</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span><span>−</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>1</span><span></span><span>−</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>x</span></span></span></span>，<span><span>F′(x)=ex−1F'(x)=e^x-1</span><span><span><span></span><span><span>F</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span>′</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span>(</span><span>x</span><span>)</span><span></span><span>=</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span>e</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>x</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span><span>−</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>1</span></span></span></span>。<span><span>x&lt;0x&lt;0</span><span><span><span></span><span>x</span><span></span><span>&lt;</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>0</span></span></span></span> 时 <span><span>F′&lt;0F'&lt;0</span><span><span><span></span><span><span>F</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span>′</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span><span>&lt;</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>0</span></span></span></span>，<span><span>x&gt;0x&gt;0</span><span><span><span></span><span>x</span><span></span><span>&gt;</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>0</span></span></span></span> 时 <span><span>F′&gt;0F'&gt;0</span><span><span><span></span><span><span>F</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span>′</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span><span>&gt;</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>0</span></span></span></span>，所以 <span><span>FF</span><span><span><span></span><span>F</span></span></span></span> 在 <span><span>x=0x=0</span><span><span><span></span><span>x</span><span></span><span>=</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>0</span></span></span></span> 处取最小值 <span><span>F(0)=0F(0)=0</span><span><span><span></span><span>F</span><span>(</span><span>0</span><span>)</span><span></span><span>=</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>0</span></span></span></span>。故 <span><span>F(x)≥0F(x)\ge0</span><span><span><span></span><span>F</span><span>(</span><span>x</span><span>)</span><span></span><span>≥</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>0</span></span></span></span>。</p></section><section><h3>题型 10：比较两个常数的大小<a href="#题型-10比较两个常数的大小"><span>#</span></a></h3><p><strong>解法</strong>：把其中一个数<strong>换成变量</strong>，转化为函数的单调性。</p><p><strong>例 13</strong> 比较 <span><span>eπe^\pi</span><span><span><span></span><span><span>e</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>π</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span> 与 <span><span>πe\pi^e</span><span><span><span></span><span><span>π</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>e</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span> 的大小。</p><p><strong>解</strong> 两边取对数，比较 <span><span>π\pi</span><span><span><span></span><span>π</span></span></span></span> 与 <span><span>eln⁡πe\ln\pi</span><span><span><span></span><span>e</span><span></span><span>ln</span><span></span><span>π</span></span></span></span>，即比较 <span><span>ln⁡ee\dfrac{\ln e}{e}</span><span><span><span></span><span><span></span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>e</span></span></span><span><span></span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span>ln</span><span></span><span>e</span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span></span></span></span></span> 与 <span><span>ln⁡ππ\dfrac{\ln\pi}{\pi}</span><span><span><span></span><span><span></span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>π</span></span></span><span><span></span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span>ln</span><span></span><span>π</span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span></span></span></span></span>。</p><p>令 <span><span>g(x)=ln⁡xxg(x)=\dfrac{\ln x}{x}</span><span><span><span></span><span>g</span><span>(</span><span>x</span><span>)</span><span></span><span>=</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span></span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>x</span></span></span><span><span></span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span>ln</span><span></span><span>x</span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span></span></span></span></span>，<span><span>g′(x)=1−ln⁡xx2g'(x)=\dfrac{1-\ln x}{x^2}</span><span><span><span></span><span><span>g</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span>′</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span>(</span><span>x</span><span>)</span><span></span><span>=</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span></span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span>x</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>2</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span><span></span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span>1</span><span></span><span>−</span><span></span><span>ln</span><span></span><span>x</span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span></span></span></span></span>。<span><span>x&gt;ex&gt;e</span><span><span><span></span><span>x</span><span></span><span>&gt;</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>e</span></span></span></span> 时 <span><span>g′(x)&lt;0g'(x)&lt;0</span><span><span><span></span><span><span>g</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span>′</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span>(</span><span>x</span><span>)</span><span></span><span>&lt;</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>0</span></span></span></span>，<span><span>gg</span><span><span><span></span><span>g</span></span></span></span> 单调减。</p><p>因为 <span><span>π&gt;e\pi&gt;e</span><span><span><span></span><span>π</span><span></span><span>&gt;</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>e</span></span></span></span>，所以 <span><span>ln⁡ππ&lt;ln⁡ee=1e\dfrac{\ln\pi}{\pi}&lt;\dfrac{\ln e}{e}=\dfrac1e</span><span><span><span></span><span><span></span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>π</span></span></span><span><span></span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span>ln</span><span></span><span>π</span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span></span><span></span><span>&lt;</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span></span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>e</span></span></span><span><span></span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span>ln</span><span></span><span>e</span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span></span><span></span><span>=</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span></span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>e</span></span></span><span><span></span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span>1</span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span></span></span></span></span>，即 <span><span>eln⁡π&lt;πe\ln\pi&lt;\pi</span><span><span><span></span><span>e</span><span></span><span>ln</span><span></span><span>π</span><span></span><span>&lt;</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>π</span></span></span></span>，所以 <span><span>πe&lt;eπ\boxed{\pi^e&lt;e^\pi}</span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span><span><span>π</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>e</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span><span>&lt;</span><span></span><span><span>e</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>π</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span><span></span><span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span>。</p><div><div><div></div><div>记住 <span><span>ln⁡xx\dfrac{\ln x}{x}</span><span><span><span></span><span><span></span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>x</span></span></span><span><span></span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span>ln</span><span></span><span>x</span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span></span></span></span></span></div></div><div><p>它在 <span><span>(0,e)(0,e)</span><span><span><span></span><span>(</span><span>0</span><span>,</span><span></span><span>e</span><span>)</span></span></span></span> 上增，在 <span><span>(e,+∞)(e,+\infty)</span><span><span><span></span><span>(</span><span>e</span><span>,</span><span></span><span>+</span><span>∞</span><span>)</span></span></span></span> 上减，最大值为 <span><span>1e\dfrac1e</span><span><span><span></span><span><span></span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>e</span></span></span><span><span></span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span>1</span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span></span></span></span></span>。比较 <span><span>aba^b</span><span><span><span></span><span><span>a</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>b</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span> 与 <span><span>bab^a</span><span><span><span></span><span><span>b</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>a</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span> 这类问题几乎都靠它。</p></div></div></section><section><h3>题型 11：用凹凸性证明不等式<a href="#题型-11用凹凸性证明不等式"><span>#</span></a></h3><p><strong>例 14</strong> 证明：当 <span><span>0&lt;x&lt;π20&lt;x&lt;\dfrac\pi2</span><span><span><span></span><span>0</span><span></span><span>&lt;</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>x</span><span></span><span>&lt;</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span></span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>2</span></span></span><span><span></span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span>π</span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span></span></span></span></span> 时，<span><span>sin⁡x&gt;2πx\sin x&gt;\dfrac{2}{\pi}x</span><span><span><span></span><span>sin</span><span></span><span>x</span><span></span><span>&gt;</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span></span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>π</span></span></span><span><span></span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span>2</span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span></span><span>x</span></span></span></span>。</p><p><strong>证</strong> 令 <span><span>f(x)=sin⁡xf(x)=\sin x</span><span><span><span></span><span>f</span><span>(</span><span>x</span><span>)</span><span></span><span>=</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>sin</span><span></span><span>x</span></span></span></span>，在 <span><span>(0,π2)\left(0,\dfrac\pi2\right)</span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span>(</span></span><span>0</span><span>,</span><span></span><span><span></span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>2</span></span></span><span><span></span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span>π</span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span></span><span><span>)</span></span></span></span></span></span> 内 <span><span>f′′(x)=−sin⁡x&lt;0f''(x)=-\sin x&lt;0</span><span><span><span></span><span><span>f</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span>′′</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span>(</span><span>x</span><span>)</span><span></span><span>=</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>−</span><span></span><span>sin</span><span></span><span>x</span><span></span><span>&lt;</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>0</span></span></span></span>，曲线是<strong>凸</strong>的。</p><p>凸的曲线位于连接两端点的弦的<strong>上方</strong>。两端点为 <span><span>(0,0)(0,0)</span><span><span><span></span><span>(</span><span>0</span><span>,</span><span></span><span>0</span><span>)</span></span></span></span> 和 <span><span>(π2,1)\left(\dfrac\pi2,1\right)</span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span>(</span></span><span><span></span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>2</span></span></span><span><span></span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span>π</span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span></span><span>,</span><span></span><span>1</span><span><span>)</span></span></span></span></span></span>，弦的方程为 <span><span>y=2πxy=\dfrac{2}{\pi}x</span><span><span><span></span><span>y</span><span></span><span>=</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span></span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>π</span></span></span><span><span></span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span>2</span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span></span><span>x</span></span></span></span>。所以 <span><span>sin⁡x&gt;2πx\sin x&gt;\dfrac2\pi x</span><span><span><span></span><span>sin</span><span></span><span>x</span><span></span><span>&gt;</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span></span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>π</span></span></span><span><span></span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span>2</span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span></span><span>x</span></span></span></span>。</p><div><div><div></div><div>几何直观</div></div><div><ul>
<li>凹（<span><span>f′′&gt;0f''&gt;0</span><span><span><span></span><span><span>f</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span>′′</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span><span>&gt;</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>0</span></span></span></span>）：曲线在弦的<strong>下方</strong>，在切线的<strong>上方</strong>。</li>
<li>凸（<span><span>f′′&lt;0f''&lt;0</span><span><span><span></span><span><span>f</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span>′′</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span><span>&lt;</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>0</span></span></span></span>）：曲线在弦的<strong>上方</strong>，在切线的<strong>下方</strong>。</li>
</ul></div></div></section><section><h3>题型 12：用泰勒公式证明（含 <span><span>f′′f''</span><span><span><span></span><span><span>f</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span>′′</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span> 的证明题）<a href="#题型-12用泰勒公式证明含-fff-的证明题"><span>#</span></a></h3><p><strong>识别特征</strong>：题目给了 <span><span>f′′f''</span><span><span><span></span><span><span>f</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span>′′</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span> 的条件，或要证的结论含 <span><span>f′′(ξ)f''(\xi)</span><span><span><span></span><span><span>f</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span>′′</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span>(</span><span>ξ</span><span>)</span></span></span></span>，同时已知某点的 <span><span>f′=0f'=0</span><span><span><span></span><span><span>f</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span>′</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span><span>=</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>0</span></span></span></span>（如最值点）。</p><p><strong>解法</strong>：在<strong>已知信息最多的点</strong>（通常是 <span><span>f′=0f'=0</span><span><span><span></span><span><span>f</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span>′</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span><span>=</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>0</span></span></span></span> 的点）展开到二阶，然后代入端点。</p><p><strong>例 15</strong> 设 <span><span>ff</span><span><span><span></span><span>f</span></span></span></span> 在 <span><span>[0,1][0,1]</span><span><span><span></span><span>[</span><span>0</span><span>,</span><span></span><span>1</span><span>]</span></span></span></span> 上二阶可导，<span><span>f(0)=f(1)=0f(0)=f(1)=0</span><span><span><span></span><span>f</span><span>(</span><span>0</span><span>)</span><span></span><span>=</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>f</span><span>(</span><span>1</span><span>)</span><span></span><span>=</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>0</span></span></span></span>，且 <span><span>ff</span><span><span><span></span><span>f</span></span></span></span> 在 <span><span>[0,1][0,1]</span><span><span><span></span><span>[</span><span>0</span><span>,</span><span></span><span>1</span><span>]</span></span></span></span> 上的最小值为 <span><span>−1-1</span><span><span><span></span><span>−</span><span>1</span></span></span></span>。证明存在 <span><span>ξ∈(0,1)\xi\in(0,1)</span><span><span><span></span><span>ξ</span><span></span><span>∈</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>(</span><span>0</span><span>,</span><span></span><span>1</span><span>)</span></span></span></span>，使 <span><span>f′′(ξ)≥8f''(\xi)\ge8</span><span><span><span></span><span><span>f</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span>′′</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span>(</span><span>ξ</span><span>)</span><span></span><span>≥</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>8</span></span></span></span>。</p><p><strong>证</strong> 端点处 <span><span>f=0&gt;−1f=0&gt;-1</span><span><span><span></span><span>f</span><span></span><span>=</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>0</span><span></span><span>&gt;</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>−</span><span>1</span></span></span></span>，所以最小值在内部某点 <span><span>c∈(0,1)c\in(0,1)</span><span><span><span></span><span>c</span><span></span><span>∈</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>(</span><span>0</span><span>,</span><span></span><span>1</span><span>)</span></span></span></span> 取到，<span><span>f(c)=−1f(c)=-1</span><span><span><span></span><span>f</span><span>(</span><span>c</span><span>)</span><span></span><span>=</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>−</span><span>1</span></span></span></span>，并由费马引理 <span><span>f′(c)=0f'(c)=0</span><span><span><span></span><span><span>f</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span>′</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span>(</span><span>c</span><span>)</span><span></span><span>=</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>0</span></span></span></span>。</p><p>在 <span><span>cc</span><span><span><span></span><span>c</span></span></span></span> 处用拉格朗日余项的泰勒公式：</p><span><span><span>f(x)=f(c)+f′(c)(x−c)+f′′(η)2(x−c)2=−1+f′′(η)2(x−c)2.f(x)=f(c)+f'(c)(x-c)+\frac{f''(\eta)}{2}(x-c)^2=-1+\frac{f''(\eta)}{2}(x-c)^2.</span><span><span><span></span><span>f</span><span>(</span><span>x</span><span>)</span><span></span><span>=</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>f</span><span>(</span><span>c</span><span>)</span><span></span><span>+</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span>f</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span>′</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span>(</span><span>c</span><span>)</span><span>(</span><span>x</span><span></span><span>−</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>c</span><span>)</span><span></span><span>+</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span></span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>2</span></span></span><span><span></span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span><span>f</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span>′′</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span>(</span><span>η</span><span>)</span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span></span><span>(</span><span>x</span><span></span><span>−</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>c</span><span><span>)</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>2</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span><span>=</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>−</span><span>1</span><span></span><span>+</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span></span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>2</span></span></span><span><span></span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span><span>f</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span>′′</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span>(</span><span>η</span><span>)</span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span></span><span>(</span><span>x</span><span></span><span>−</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>c</span><span><span>)</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>2</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span>.</span></span></span></span></span><p>分别代入 <span><span>x=0x=0</span><span><span><span></span><span>x</span><span></span><span>=</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>0</span></span></span></span> 和 <span><span>x=1x=1</span><span><span><span></span><span>x</span><span></span><span>=</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>1</span></span></span></span>：</p><span><span><span>0=−1+f′′(ξ1)2c2 ⇒ f′′(ξ1)=2c2,0=−1+f′′(ξ2)2(1−c)2 ⇒ f′′(ξ2)=2(1−c)2,0=-1+\frac{f''(\xi_1)}{2}c^2\ \Rightarrow\ f''(\xi_1)=\frac{2}{c^2},\qquad 0=-1+\frac{f''(\xi_2)}{2}(1-c)^2\ \Rightarrow\ f''(\xi_2)=\frac{2}{(1-c)^2},</span><span><span><span></span><span>0</span><span></span><span>=</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>−</span><span>1</span><span></span><span>+</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span></span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>2</span></span></span><span><span></span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span><span>f</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span>′′</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span>(</span><span><span>ξ</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>1</span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span>)</span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span></span><span><span>c</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>2</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span> </span><span></span><span>⇒</span><span> </span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span>f</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span>′′</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span>(</span><span><span>ξ</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>1</span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span>)</span><span></span><span>=</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span></span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span>c</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>2</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span><span></span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span>2</span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span></span><span>,</span><span></span><span></span><span>0</span><span></span><span>=</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>−</span><span>1</span><span></span><span>+</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span></span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>2</span></span></span><span><span></span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span><span>f</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span>′′</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span>(</span><span><span>ξ</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>2</span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span>)</span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span></span><span>(</span><span>1</span><span></span><span>−</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>c</span><span><span>)</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>2</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span> </span><span></span><span>⇒</span><span> </span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span>f</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span>′′</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span>(</span><span><span>ξ</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>2</span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span>)</span><span></span><span>=</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span></span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>(</span><span>1</span><span></span><span>−</span><span></span><span>c</span><span><span>)</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>2</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span><span></span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span>2</span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span></span><span>,</span></span></span></span></span><p>其中 <span><span>ξ1∈(0,c)\xi_1\in(0,c)</span><span><span><span></span><span><span>ξ</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>1</span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span><span>∈</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>(</span><span>0</span><span>,</span><span></span><span>c</span><span>)</span></span></span></span>，<span><span>ξ2∈(c,1)\xi_2\in(c,1)</span><span><span><span></span><span><span>ξ</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>2</span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span><span>∈</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>(</span><span>c</span><span>,</span><span></span><span>1</span><span>)</span></span></span></span>。</p><ul>
<li>若 <span><span>c≤12c\le\dfrac12</span><span><span><span></span><span>c</span><span></span><span>≤</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span></span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>2</span></span></span><span><span></span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span>1</span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span></span></span></span></span>，则 <span><span>f′′(ξ1)=2c2≥8f''(\xi_1)=\dfrac{2}{c^2}\ge8</span><span><span><span></span><span><span>f</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span>′′</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span>(</span><span><span>ξ</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>1</span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span>)</span><span></span><span>=</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span></span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span>c</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>2</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span><span></span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span>2</span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span></span><span></span><span>≥</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>8</span></span></span></span>；</li>
<li>若 <span><span>c&gt;12c&gt;\dfrac12</span><span><span><span></span><span>c</span><span></span><span>&gt;</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span></span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>2</span></span></span><span><span></span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span>1</span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span></span></span></span></span>，则 <span><span>1−c&lt;121-c&lt;\dfrac12</span><span><span><span></span><span>1</span><span></span><span>−</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>c</span><span></span><span>&lt;</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span></span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>2</span></span></span><span><span></span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span>1</span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span></span></span></span></span>，<span><span>f′′(ξ2)=2(1−c)2&gt;8f''(\xi_2)=\dfrac{2}{(1-c)^2}&gt;8</span><span><span><span></span><span><span>f</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span>′′</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span>(</span><span><span>ξ</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>2</span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span>)</span><span></span><span>=</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span></span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>(</span><span>1</span><span></span><span>−</span><span></span><span>c</span><span><span>)</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>2</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span><span></span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span>2</span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span></span><span></span><span>&gt;</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>8</span></span></span></span>。</li>
</ul><p>总之存在 <span><span>ξ∈(0,1)\xi\in(0,1)</span><span><span><span></span><span>ξ</span><span></span><span>∈</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>(</span><span>0</span><span>,</span><span></span><span>1</span><span>)</span></span></span></span> 使 <span><span>f′′(ξ)≥8f''(\xi)\ge8</span><span><span><span></span><span><span>f</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span>′′</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span>(</span><span>ξ</span><span>)</span><span></span><span>≥</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>8</span></span></span></span>。</p><p><strong>例 16</strong> 设 <span><span>f′′(x)&gt;0f''(x)&gt;0</span><span><span><span></span><span><span>f</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span>′′</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span>(</span><span>x</span><span>)</span><span></span><span>&gt;</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>0</span></span></span></span>。证明对任意 <span><span>xx</span><span><span><span></span><span>x</span></span></span></span> 和 <span><span>x0x_0</span><span><span><span></span><span><span>x</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>0</span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span>，<span><span>f(x)≥f(x0)+f′(x0)(x−x0)f(x)\ge f(x_0)+f'(x_0)(x-x_0)</span><span><span><span></span><span>f</span><span>(</span><span>x</span><span>)</span><span></span><span>≥</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>f</span><span>(</span><span><span>x</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>0</span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span>)</span><span></span><span>+</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span>f</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span>′</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span>(</span><span><span>x</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>0</span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span>)</span><span>(</span><span>x</span><span></span><span>−</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span>x</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>0</span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span>)</span></span></span></span>。</p><p><strong>证</strong> 在 <span><span>x0x_0</span><span><span><span></span><span><span>x</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>0</span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span> 处展开：</p><span><span><span>f(x)=f(x0)+f′(x0)(x−x0)+f′′(ξ)2(x−x0)2≥f(x0)+f′(x0)(x−x0).f(x)=f(x_0)+f'(x_0)(x-x_0)+\frac{f''(\xi)}{2}(x-x_0)^2\ge f(x_0)+f'(x_0)(x-x_0).</span><span><span><span></span><span>f</span><span>(</span><span>x</span><span>)</span><span></span><span>=</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>f</span><span>(</span><span><span>x</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>0</span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span>)</span><span></span><span>+</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span>f</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span>′</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span>(</span><span><span>x</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>0</span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span>)</span><span>(</span><span>x</span><span></span><span>−</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span>x</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>0</span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span>)</span><span></span><span>+</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span></span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>2</span></span></span><span><span></span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span><span>f</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span>′′</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span>(</span><span>ξ</span><span>)</span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span></span><span>(</span><span>x</span><span></span><span>−</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span>x</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>0</span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span><span>)</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>2</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span><span>≥</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>f</span><span>(</span><span><span>x</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>0</span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span>)</span><span></span><span>+</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span>f</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span>′</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span>(</span><span><span>x</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>0</span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span>)</span><span>(</span><span>x</span><span></span><span>−</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span>x</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>0</span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span>)</span><span>.</span></span></span></span></span><p>这就是“凹的曲线在切线上方”的严格证明。</p></section><section><h3>题型 13：讨论方程根的个数<a href="#题型-13讨论方程根的个数"><span>#</span></a></h3><p><strong>解法步骤</strong>：</p><ol>
<li><strong>分离参数</strong>：把方程化成 <span><span>g(x)=kg(x)=k</span><span><span><span></span><span>g</span><span>(</span><span>x</span><span>)</span><span></span><span>=</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>k</span></span></span></span> 的形式；</li>
<li>研究 <span><span>gg</span><span><span><span></span><span>g</span></span></span></span> 的单调区间、极值，以及<strong>定义域端点处的极限</strong>；</li>
<li>画出 <span><span>gg</span><span><span><span></span><span>g</span></span></span></span> 的大致图像，看水平线 <span><span>y=ky=k</span><span><span><span></span><span>y</span><span></span><span>=</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>k</span></span></span></span> 与它有几个交点。</li>
</ol><p><strong>例 17</strong> 讨论方程 <span><span>ln⁡x=kx\ln x=kx</span><span><span><span></span><span>ln</span><span></span><span>x</span><span></span><span>=</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>k</span><span>x</span></span></span></span> 的实根个数。</p><p><strong>解</strong> <span><span>x&gt;0x&gt;0</span><span><span><span></span><span>x</span><span></span><span>&gt;</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>0</span></span></span></span>，方程等价于 <span><span>ln⁡xx=k\dfrac{\ln x}{x}=k</span><span><span><span></span><span><span></span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>x</span></span></span><span><span></span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span>ln</span><span></span><span>x</span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span></span><span></span><span>=</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>k</span></span></span></span>。令 <span><span>g(x)=ln⁡xxg(x)=\dfrac{\ln x}{x}</span><span><span><span></span><span>g</span><span>(</span><span>x</span><span>)</span><span></span><span>=</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span></span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>x</span></span></span><span><span></span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span>ln</span><span></span><span>x</span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span></span></span></span></span>。</p><p>由例 13，<span><span>gg</span><span><span><span></span><span>g</span></span></span></span> 在 <span><span>(0,e)(0,e)</span><span><span><span></span><span>(</span><span>0</span><span>,</span><span></span><span>e</span><span>)</span></span></span></span> 上增，在 <span><span>(e,+∞)(e,+\infty)</span><span><span><span></span><span>(</span><span>e</span><span>,</span><span></span><span>+</span><span>∞</span><span>)</span></span></span></span> 上减，最大值 <span><span>g(e)=1eg(e)=\dfrac1e</span><span><span><span></span><span>g</span><span>(</span><span>e</span><span>)</span><span></span><span>=</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span></span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>e</span></span></span><span><span></span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span>1</span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span></span></span></span></span>。端点处的极限：</p><span><span><span>lim⁡x→0+g(x)=−∞,lim⁡x→+∞g(x)=0+.\lim_{x\to0^+}g(x)=-\infty,\qquad\lim_{x\to+\infty}g(x)=0^+.</span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span>x</span><span>→</span><span><span>0</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>+</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span>lim</span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span><span>g</span><span>(</span><span>x</span><span>)</span><span></span><span>=</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>−</span><span>∞</span><span>,</span><span></span><span></span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span>x</span><span>→</span><span>+</span><span>∞</span></span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span>lim</span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span><span>g</span><span>(</span><span>x</span><span>)</span><span></span><span>=</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span>0</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>+</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span>.</span></span></span></span></span><p>所以 <span><span>gg</span><span><span><span></span><span>g</span></span></span></span> 在 <span><span>(0,e)(0,e)</span><span><span><span></span><span>(</span><span>0</span><span>,</span><span></span><span>e</span><span>)</span></span></span></span> 上从 <span><span>−∞-\infty</span><span><span><span></span><span>−</span><span>∞</span></span></span></span> 增到 <span><span>1e\dfrac1e</span><span><span><span></span><span><span></span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>e</span></span></span><span><span></span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span>1</span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span></span></span></span></span>，在 <span><span>(e,+∞)(e,+\infty)</span><span><span><span></span><span>(</span><span>e</span><span>,</span><span></span><span>+</span><span>∞</span><span>)</span></span></span></span> 上从 <span><span>1e\dfrac1e</span><span><span><span></span><span><span></span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>e</span></span></span><span><span></span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span>1</span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span></span></span></span></span> 减到 <span><span>00</span><span><span><span></span><span>0</span></span></span></span>（始终为正）。</p>

<table><thead><tr><th><span><span>kk</span><span><span><span></span><span>k</span></span></span></span> 的范围</th><th>根的个数</th></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td><span><span>k&gt;1ek&gt;\dfrac1e</span><span><span><span></span><span>k</span><span></span><span>&gt;</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span></span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>e</span></span></span><span><span></span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span>1</span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span></span></span></span></span></td><td>0 个</td></tr><tr><td><span><span>k=1ek=\dfrac1e</span><span><span><span></span><span>k</span><span></span><span>=</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span></span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>e</span></span></span><span><span></span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span>1</span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span></span></span></span></span></td><td>1 个（<span><span>x=ex=e</span><span><span><span></span><span>x</span><span></span><span>=</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>e</span></span></span></span>）</td></tr><tr><td><span><span>0&lt;k&lt;1e0&lt;k&lt;\dfrac1e</span><span><span><span></span><span>0</span><span></span><span>&lt;</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>k</span><span></span><span>&lt;</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span></span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>e</span></span></span><span><span></span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span>1</span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span></span></span></span></span></td><td>2 个</td></tr><tr><td><span><span>k≤0k\le0</span><span><span><span></span><span>k</span><span></span><span>≤</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>0</span></span></span></span></td><td>1 个</td></tr></tbody></table><div><div><div></div><div>端点极限决定结果</div></div><div><p>只求极值、不求端点极限，就判断不了根的个数。本题若不知道 <span><span>x→+∞x\to+\infty</span><span><span><span></span><span>x</span><span></span><span>→</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>+</span><span>∞</span></span></span></span> 时 <span><span>g→0+g\to0^+</span><span><span><span></span><span>g</span><span></span><span>→</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span>0</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>+</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span>，就会误以为 <span><span>k≤0k\le0</span><span><span><span></span><span>k</span><span></span><span>≤</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>0</span></span></span></span> 时右侧也有根。</p></div></div></section></section>
<section><h2>五、证明思路<a href="#五证明思路"><span>#</span></a></h2><section><h3>1. 单调性判别法<a href="#1-单调性判别法"><span>#</span></a></h3><p>任取 <span><span>x1&lt;x2x_1&lt;x_2</span><span><span><span></span><span><span>x</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>1</span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span><span>&lt;</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span>x</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>2</span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span>，由拉格朗日中值定理：</p><span><span><span>f(x2)−f(x1)=f′(ξ)(x2−x1).f(x_2)-f(x_1)=f'(\xi)(x_2-x_1).</span><span><span><span></span><span>f</span><span>(</span><span><span>x</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>2</span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span>)</span><span></span><span>−</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>f</span><span>(</span><span><span>x</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>1</span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span>)</span><span></span><span>=</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span>f</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span>′</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span>(</span><span>ξ</span><span>)</span><span>(</span><span><span>x</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>2</span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span><span>−</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span>x</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>1</span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span>)</span><span>.</span></span></span></span></span><p><span><span>f′(ξ)&gt;0f'(\xi)&gt;0</span><span><span><span></span><span><span>f</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span>′</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span>(</span><span>ξ</span><span>)</span><span></span><span>&gt;</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>0</span></span></span></span>，<span><span>x2−x1&gt;0x_2-x_1&gt;0</span><span><span><span></span><span><span>x</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>2</span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span><span>−</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span>x</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>1</span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span><span>&gt;</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>0</span></span></span></span>，所以 <span><span>f(x2)&gt;f(x1)f(x_2)&gt;f(x_1)</span><span><span><span></span><span>f</span><span>(</span><span><span>x</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>2</span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span>)</span><span></span><span>&gt;</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>f</span><span>(</span><span><span>x</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>1</span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span>)</span></span></span></span>。</p></section><section><h3>2. 洛必达法则（0/0 型，<span><span>x→x0x\to x_0</span><span><span><span></span><span>x</span><span></span><span>→</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span>x</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>0</span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span>）<a href="#2-洛必达法则00-型xx0xto-x_0xx0"><span>#</span></a></h3><p>补充定义 <span><span>f(x0)=g(x0)=0f(x_0)=g(x_0)=0</span><span><span><span></span><span>f</span><span>(</span><span><span>x</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>0</span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span>)</span><span></span><span>=</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>g</span><span>(</span><span><span>x</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>0</span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span>)</span><span></span><span>=</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>0</span></span></span></span>，使 <span><span>f,gf,g</span><span><span><span></span><span>f</span><span>,</span><span></span><span>g</span></span></span></span> 在 <span><span>x0x_0</span><span><span><span></span><span><span>x</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>0</span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span> 处连续。对 <span><span>x0x_0</span><span><span><span></span><span><span>x</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>0</span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span> 与 <span><span>xx</span><span><span><span></span><span>x</span></span></span></span> 之间的区间用柯西中值定理：</p><span><span><span>f(x)g(x)=f(x)−f(x0)g(x)−g(x0)=f′(ξ)g′(ξ).\frac{f(x)}{g(x)}=\frac{f(x)-f(x_0)}{g(x)-g(x_0)}=\frac{f'(\xi)}{g'(\xi)}.</span><span><span><span></span><span><span></span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>g</span><span>(</span><span>x</span><span>)</span></span></span><span><span></span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span>f</span><span>(</span><span>x</span><span>)</span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span></span><span></span><span>=</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span></span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>g</span><span>(</span><span>x</span><span>)</span><span></span><span>−</span><span></span><span>g</span><span>(</span><span><span>x</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>0</span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span>)</span></span></span><span><span></span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span>f</span><span>(</span><span>x</span><span>)</span><span></span><span>−</span><span></span><span>f</span><span>(</span><span><span>x</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>0</span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span>)</span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span></span><span></span><span>=</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span></span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span>g</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span>′</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span>(</span><span>ξ</span><span>)</span></span></span><span><span></span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span><span>f</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span>′</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span>(</span><span>ξ</span><span>)</span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span></span><span>.</span></span></span></span></span><p><span><span>ξ\xi</span><span><span><span></span><span>ξ</span></span></span></span> 夹在 <span><span>x0x_0</span><span><span><span></span><span><span>x</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>0</span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span> 和 <span><span>xx</span><span><span><span></span><span>x</span></span></span></span> 之间，<span><span>x→x0x\to x_0</span><span><span><span></span><span>x</span><span></span><span>→</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span>x</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>0</span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span> 时 <span><span>ξ→x0\xi\to x_0</span><span><span><span></span><span>ξ</span><span></span><span>→</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span>x</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>0</span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span>，于是两个极限相等。</p></section><section><h3>3. 极值的第二充分条件<a href="#3-极值的第二充分条件"><span>#</span></a></h3><p><span><span>f′(x0)=0f'(x_0)=0</span><span><span><span></span><span><span>f</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span>′</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span>(</span><span><span>x</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>0</span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span>)</span><span></span><span>=</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>0</span></span></span></span>，所以</p><span><span><span>f′′(x0)=lim⁡x→x0f′(x)−f′(x0)x−x0=lim⁡x→x0f′(x)x−x0&gt;0.f''(x_0)=\lim_{x\to x_0}\frac{f'(x)-f'(x_0)}{x-x_0}=\lim_{x\to x_0}\frac{f'(x)}{x-x_0}&gt;0.</span><span><span><span></span><span><span>f</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span>′′</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span>(</span><span><span>x</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>0</span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span>)</span><span></span><span>=</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span>x</span><span>→</span><span><span>x</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>0</span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span>lim</span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span><span><span></span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>x</span><span></span><span>−</span><span></span><span><span>x</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>0</span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span><span></span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span><span>f</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span>′</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span>(</span><span>x</span><span>)</span><span></span><span>−</span><span></span><span><span>f</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span>′</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span>(</span><span><span>x</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>0</span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span>)</span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span></span><span></span><span>=</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span>x</span><span>→</span><span><span>x</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>0</span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span>lim</span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span><span><span></span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>x</span><span></span><span>−</span><span></span><span><span>x</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>0</span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span><span></span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span><span>f</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span>′</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span>(</span><span>x</span><span>)</span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span></span><span></span><span>&gt;</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>0.</span></span></span></span></span><p>由保号性，在 <span><span>x0x_0</span><span><span><span></span><span><span>x</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>0</span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span> 附近 <span><span>f′(x)f'(x)</span><span><span><span></span><span><span>f</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span>′</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span>(</span><span>x</span><span>)</span></span></span></span> 与 <span><span>x−x0x-x_0</span><span><span><span></span><span>x</span><span></span><span>−</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span>x</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>0</span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span> <strong>同号</strong>：左侧 <span><span>f′&lt;0f'&lt;0</span><span><span><span></span><span><span>f</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span>′</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span><span>&lt;</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>0</span></span></span></span>，右侧 <span><span>f′&gt;0f'&gt;0</span><span><span><span></span><span><span>f</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span>′</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span><span>&gt;</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>0</span></span></span></span>。由第一充分条件，<span><span>x0x_0</span><span><span><span></span><span><span>x</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>0</span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span> 是极小值点。</p></section><section><h3>4. 拉格朗日余项<a href="#4-拉格朗日余项"><span>#</span></a></h3><p>令 <span><span>R(x)=f(x)−Pn(x)R(x)=f(x)-P_n(x)</span><span><span><span></span><span>R</span><span>(</span><span>x</span><span>)</span><span></span><span>=</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>f</span><span>(</span><span>x</span><span>)</span><span></span><span>−</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span>P</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>n</span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span>(</span><span>x</span><span>)</span></span></span></span>，其中 <span><span>PnP_n</span><span><span><span></span><span><span>P</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>n</span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span> 是 <span><span>nn</span><span><span><span></span><span>n</span></span></span></span> 阶泰勒多项式。由构造，</p><span><span><span>R(x0)=R′(x0)=⋯=R(n)(x0)=0.R(x_0)=R'(x_0)=\cdots=R^{(n)}(x_0)=0.</span><span><span><span></span><span>R</span><span>(</span><span><span>x</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>0</span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span>)</span><span></span><span>=</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span>R</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span>′</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span>(</span><span><span>x</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>0</span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span>)</span><span></span><span>=</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>⋯</span><span></span><span>=</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span>R</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span>(</span><span>n</span><span>)</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span>(</span><span><span>x</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>0</span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span>)</span><span></span><span>=</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>0.</span></span></span></span></span><p>对 <span><span>R(x)(x−x0)n+1\dfrac{R(x)}{(x-x_0)^{n+1}}</span><span><span><span></span><span><span></span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>(</span><span>x</span><span></span><span>−</span><span></span><span><span>x</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>0</span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span><span>)</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span>n</span><span>+</span><span>1</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span><span></span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span>R</span><span>(</span><span>x</span><span>)</span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span></span></span></span></span> 反复用 <span><span>n+1n+1</span><span><span><span></span><span>n</span><span></span><span>+</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>1</span></span></span></span> 次柯西中值定理（每次分子分母在 <span><span>x0x_0</span><span><span><span></span><span><span>x</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>0</span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span> 处都为 <span><span>00</span><span><span><span></span><span>0</span></span></span></span>），最后得到</p><span><span><span>R(x)(x−x0)n+1=R(n+1)(ξ)(n+1)!=f(n+1)(ξ)(n+1)!.\frac{R(x)}{(x-x_0)^{n+1}}=\frac{R^{(n+1)}(\xi)}{(n+1)!}=\frac{f^{(n+1)}(\xi)}{(n+1)!}.</span><span><span><span></span><span><span></span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>(</span><span>x</span><span></span><span>−</span><span></span><span><span>x</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>0</span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span><span>)</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span>n</span><span>+</span><span>1</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span><span></span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span>R</span><span>(</span><span>x</span><span>)</span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span></span><span></span><span>=</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span></span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>(</span><span>n</span><span></span><span>+</span><span></span><span>1</span><span>)!</span></span></span><span><span></span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span><span>R</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span>(</span><span>n</span><span>+</span><span>1</span><span>)</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span>(</span><span>ξ</span><span>)</span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span></span><span></span><span>=</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span></span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>(</span><span>n</span><span></span><span>+</span><span></span><span>1</span><span>)!</span></span></span><span><span></span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span><span>f</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span>(</span><span>n</span><span>+</span><span>1</span><span>)</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span>(</span><span>ξ</span><span>)</span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span></span><span>.</span></span></span></span></span></section><section><h3>5. <span><span>f′′&gt;0f''&gt;0</span><span><span><span></span><span><span>f</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span>′′</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span><span>&gt;</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>0</span></span></span></span> 时曲线是凹的<a href="#5-f0f0f0-时曲线是凹的"><span>#</span></a></h3><p>取 <span><span>x1&lt;x2x_1&lt;x_2</span><span><span><span></span><span><span>x</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>1</span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span><span>&lt;</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span>x</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>2</span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span>，中点 <span><span>x0=x1+x22x_0=\dfrac{x_1+x_2}{2}</span><span><span><span></span><span><span>x</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>0</span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span><span>=</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span></span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>2</span></span></span><span><span></span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span><span>x</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>1</span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span><span>+</span><span></span><span><span>x</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>2</span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span></span></span></span></span>，<span><span>h=x2−x12h=\dfrac{x_2-x_1}{2}</span><span><span><span></span><span>h</span><span></span><span>=</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span></span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>2</span></span></span><span><span></span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span><span>x</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>2</span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span><span>−</span><span></span><span><span>x</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>1</span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span></span></span></span></span>。在两个半区间上分别用拉格朗日：</p><span><span><span>f(x0)−f(x1)=f′(ξ1)h,f(x2)−f(x0)=f′(ξ2)h,ξ1&lt;x0&lt;ξ2.f(x_0)-f(x_1)=f'(\xi_1)h,\qquad f(x_2)-f(x_0)=f'(\xi_2)h,\qquad\xi_1&lt;x_0&lt;\xi_2.</span><span><span><span></span><span>f</span><span>(</span><span><span>x</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>0</span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span>)</span><span></span><span>−</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>f</span><span>(</span><span><span>x</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>1</span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span>)</span><span></span><span>=</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span>f</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span>′</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span>(</span><span><span>ξ</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>1</span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span>)</span><span>h</span><span>,</span><span></span><span></span><span>f</span><span>(</span><span><span>x</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>2</span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span>)</span><span></span><span>−</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>f</span><span>(</span><span><span>x</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>0</span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span>)</span><span></span><span>=</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span>f</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span>′</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span>(</span><span><span>ξ</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>2</span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span>)</span><span>h</span><span>,</span><span></span><span></span><span><span>ξ</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>1</span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span><span>&lt;</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span>x</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>0</span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span><span>&lt;</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span>ξ</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>2</span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span>.</span></span></span></span></span><p><span><span>f′′&gt;0f''&gt;0</span><span><span><span></span><span><span>f</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span>′′</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span><span>&gt;</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>0</span></span></span></span> 说明 <span><span>f′f'</span><span><span><span></span><span><span>f</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span>′</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span> 单调增，<span><span>f′(ξ1)&lt;f′(ξ2)f'(\xi_1)&lt;f'(\xi_2)</span><span><span><span></span><span><span>f</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span>′</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span>(</span><span><span>ξ</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>1</span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span>)</span><span></span><span>&lt;</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span>f</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span>′</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span>(</span><span><span>ξ</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>2</span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span>)</span></span></span></span>，所以 <span><span>f(x0)−f(x1)&lt;f(x2)−f(x0)f(x_0)-f(x_1)&lt;f(x_2)-f(x_0)</span><span><span><span></span><span>f</span><span>(</span><span><span>x</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>0</span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span>)</span><span></span><span>−</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>f</span><span>(</span><span><span>x</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>1</span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span>)</span><span></span><span>&lt;</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>f</span><span>(</span><span><span>x</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>2</span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span>)</span><span></span><span>−</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>f</span><span>(</span><span><span>x</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>0</span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span>)</span></span></span></span>，即</p><span><span><span>f(x0)&lt;f(x1)+f(x2)2.f(x_0)&lt;\frac{f(x_1)+f(x_2)}{2}.</span><span><span><span></span><span>f</span><span>(</span><span><span>x</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>0</span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span>)</span><span></span><span>&lt;</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span></span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>2</span></span></span><span><span></span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span>f</span><span>(</span><span><span>x</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>1</span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span>)</span><span></span><span>+</span><span></span><span>f</span><span>(</span><span><span>x</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>2</span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span>)</span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span></span><span>.</span></span></span></span></span></section></section>
<section><h2>六、易错点<a href="#六易错点"><span>#</span></a></h2><div><div><div></div><div>驻点 ≠ 极值点 ≠ 拐点</div></div><div><ul>
<li><span><span>f′(x0)=0f'(x_0)=0</span><span><span><span></span><span><span>f</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span>′</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span>(</span><span><span>x</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>0</span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span>)</span><span></span><span>=</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>0</span></span></span></span> 只是“可能是极值点”。<span><span>x3x^3</span><span><span><span></span><span><span>x</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>3</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span> 在 <span><span>00</span><span><span><span></span><span>0</span></span></span></span> 处是驻点，但不是极值点。</li>
<li><span><span>f′′(x0)=0f''(x_0)=0</span><span><span><span></span><span><span>f</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span>′′</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span>(</span><span><span>x</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>0</span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span>)</span><span></span><span>=</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>0</span></span></span></span> 只是“可能是拐点”。<span><span>x4x^4</span><span><span><span></span><span><span>x</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>4</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span> 在 <span><span>00</span><span><span><span></span><span>0</span></span></span></span> 处 <span><span>f′′=0f''=0</span><span><span><span></span><span><span>f</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span>′′</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span><span>=</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>0</span></span></span></span>，但两侧都凹，不是拐点。</li>
<li>反过来，不可导点和 <span><span>f′′f''</span><span><span><span></span><span><span>f</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span>′′</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span> 不存在的点也可能是极值点或拐点。</li>
</ul></div></div><ul>
<li><strong>洛必达条件不满足</strong>：求导后极限不存在，不能说明原极限不存在；只知道一点处的高阶导数时，不能洛到底。</li>
<li><strong>漏掉不可导点</strong>：求极值和最值时，候选点包括不可导点。</li>
<li><strong>拐点写成横坐标</strong>：拐点要写 <span><span>(x0,f(x0))(x_0,f(x_0))</span><span><span><span></span><span>(</span><span><span>x</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>0</span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span>,</span><span></span><span>f</span><span>(</span><span><span>x</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>0</span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span>))</span></span></span></span>。</li>
<li><strong>渐近线不分 <span><span>±∞\pm\infty</span><span><span><span></span><span>±</span><span>∞</span></span></span></span></strong>：<span><span>exe^x</span><span><span><span></span><span><span>e</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>x</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span>、<span><span>arctan⁡x\arctan x</span><span><span><span></span><span>arctan</span><span></span><span>x</span></span></span></span>、<span><span>ln⁡(1+ex)\ln(1+e^x)</span><span><span><span></span><span>ln</span><span>(</span><span>1</span><span></span><span>+</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span>e</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>x</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span>)</span></span></span></span> 等，两个方向的结果往往不同。</li>
<li><strong>斜渐近线只求 <span><span>kk</span><span><span><span></span><span>k</span></span></span></span> 不求 <span><span>bb</span><span><span><span></span><span>b</span></span></span></span></strong>：<span><span>kk</span><span><span><span></span><span>k</span></span></span></span> 存在但 <span><span>bb</span><span><span><span></span><span>b</span></span></span></span> 不存在（如 <span><span>y=x+xy=x+\sqrt x</span><span><span><span></span><span>y</span><span></span><span>=</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>x</span><span></span><span>+</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span>x</span></span><span><span></span><span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span> 中 <span><span>b→∞b\to\infty</span><span><span><span></span><span>b</span><span></span><span>→</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>∞</span></span></span></span>），就没有斜渐近线。</li>
<li><strong>根的个数只看极值、不看端点极限</strong>。</li>
<li><strong>泰勒公式用错余项</strong>：证明不等式要用拉格朗日余项；佩亚诺余项只能说明局部情况。</li>
</ul></section>
<section><h2>七、小练习<a href="#七小练习"><span>#</span></a></h2><p><strong>1.</strong> 求 <span><span>f(x)=xe−xf(x)=xe^{-x}</span><span><span><span></span><span>f</span><span>(</span><span>x</span><span>)</span><span></span><span>=</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>x</span><span><span>e</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span>−</span><span>x</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span> 的单调区间、极值、凹凸区间和拐点。</p>
点击查看答案<p><span><span>f′(x)=(1−x)e−xf'(x)=(1-x)e^{-x}</span><span><span><span></span><span><span>f</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span>′</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span>(</span><span>x</span><span>)</span><span></span><span>=</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>(</span><span>1</span><span></span><span>−</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>x</span><span>)</span><span><span>e</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span>−</span><span>x</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span>：在 <span><span>(−∞,1)(-\infty,1)</span><span><span><span></span><span>(</span><span>−</span><span>∞</span><span>,</span><span></span><span>1</span><span>)</span></span></span></span> 上增，在 <span><span>(1,+∞)(1,+\infty)</span><span><span><span></span><span>(</span><span>1</span><span>,</span><span></span><span>+</span><span>∞</span><span>)</span></span></span></span> 上减，极大值 <span><span>f(1)=1ef(1)=\dfrac1e</span><span><span><span></span><span>f</span><span>(</span><span>1</span><span>)</span><span></span><span>=</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span></span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>e</span></span></span><span><span></span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span>1</span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span></span></span></span></span>。</p><p><span><span>f′′(x)=(x−2)e−xf''(x)=(x-2)e^{-x}</span><span><span><span></span><span><span>f</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span>′′</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span>(</span><span>x</span><span>)</span><span></span><span>=</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>(</span><span>x</span><span></span><span>−</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>2</span><span>)</span><span><span>e</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span>−</span><span>x</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span>：在 <span><span>(−∞,2)(-\infty,2)</span><span><span><span></span><span>(</span><span>−</span><span>∞</span><span>,</span><span></span><span>2</span><span>)</span></span></span></span> 上凸，在 <span><span>(2,+∞)(2,+\infty)</span><span><span><span></span><span>(</span><span>2</span><span>,</span><span></span><span>+</span><span>∞</span><span>)</span></span></span></span> 上凹，拐点为 <span><span>(2,2e2)\left(2,\dfrac{2}{e^2}\right)</span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span>(</span></span><span>2</span><span>,</span><span></span><span><span></span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span>e</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>2</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span><span></span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span>2</span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span></span><span><span>)</span></span></span></span></span></span>。</p><p><strong>2.</strong> 求曲线 <span><span>y=x2x+1y=\dfrac{x^2}{x+1}</span><span><span><span></span><span>y</span><span></span><span>=</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span></span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>x</span><span></span><span>+</span><span></span><span>1</span></span></span><span><span></span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span><span>x</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>2</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span></span></span></span></span> 的全部渐近线。</p>
点击查看答案<ul>
<li>铅直：<span><span>x→−1x\to-1</span><span><span><span></span><span>x</span><span></span><span>→</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>−</span><span>1</span></span></span></span> 时 <span><span>y→∞y\to\infty</span><span><span><span></span><span>y</span><span></span><span>→</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>∞</span></span></span></span>，得 <span><span>x=−1x=-1</span><span><span><span></span><span>x</span><span></span><span>=</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>−</span><span>1</span></span></span></span>。</li>
<li>斜：<span><span>k=lim⁡xx+1=1k=\lim\dfrac{x}{x+1}=1</span><span><span><span></span><span>k</span><span></span><span>=</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>lim</span><span></span><span><span></span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>x</span><span></span><span>+</span><span></span><span>1</span></span></span><span><span></span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span>x</span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span></span><span></span><span>=</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>1</span></span></span></span>，<span><span>b=lim⁡(x2x+1−x)=lim⁡−xx+1=−1b=\lim\left(\dfrac{x^2}{x+1}-x\right)=\lim\dfrac{-x}{x+1}=-1</span><span><span><span></span><span>b</span><span></span><span>=</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>lim</span><span></span><span><span><span>(</span></span><span><span></span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>x</span><span></span><span>+</span><span></span><span>1</span></span></span><span><span></span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span><span>x</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>2</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span></span><span></span><span>−</span><span></span><span>x</span><span><span>)</span></span></span><span></span><span>=</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>lim</span><span></span><span><span></span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>x</span><span></span><span>+</span><span></span><span>1</span></span></span><span><span></span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span>−</span><span>x</span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span></span><span></span><span>=</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>−</span><span>1</span></span></span></span>，得 <span><span>y=x−1y=x-1</span><span><span><span></span><span>y</span><span></span><span>=</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>x</span><span></span><span>−</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>1</span></span></span></span>（<span><span>x→±∞x\to\pm\infty</span><span><span><span></span><span>x</span><span></span><span>→</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>±</span><span>∞</span></span></span></span> 相同）。</li>
<li>无水平渐近线。</li>
</ul><p><strong>3.</strong> 证明：当 <span><span>x&gt;0x&gt;0</span><span><span><span></span><span>x</span><span></span><span>&gt;</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>0</span></span></span></span> 时，<span><span>x1+x&lt;ln⁡(1+x)&lt;x\dfrac{x}{1+x}&lt;\ln(1+x)&lt;x</span><span><span><span></span><span><span></span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>1</span><span></span><span>+</span><span></span><span>x</span></span></span><span><span></span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span>x</span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span></span><span></span><span>&lt;</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>ln</span><span>(</span><span>1</span><span></span><span>+</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>x</span><span>)</span><span></span><span>&lt;</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>x</span></span></span></span>。</p>
点击查看答案<p>右边：令 <span><span>g(x)=x−ln⁡(1+x)g(x)=x-\ln(1+x)</span><span><span><span></span><span>g</span><span>(</span><span>x</span><span>)</span><span></span><span>=</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>x</span><span></span><span>−</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>ln</span><span>(</span><span>1</span><span></span><span>+</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>x</span><span>)</span></span></span></span>，<span><span>g(0)=0g(0)=0</span><span><span><span></span><span>g</span><span>(</span><span>0</span><span>)</span><span></span><span>=</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>0</span></span></span></span>，<span><span>g′(x)=x1+x&gt;0g'(x)=\dfrac{x}{1+x}&gt;0</span><span><span><span></span><span><span>g</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span>′</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span>(</span><span>x</span><span>)</span><span></span><span>=</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span></span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>1</span><span></span><span>+</span><span></span><span>x</span></span></span><span><span></span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span>x</span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span></span><span></span><span>&gt;</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>0</span></span></span></span>，所以 <span><span>g(x)&gt;0g(x)&gt;0</span><span><span><span></span><span>g</span><span>(</span><span>x</span><span>)</span><span></span><span>&gt;</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>0</span></span></span></span>。</p><p>左边：令 <span><span>h(x)=ln⁡(1+x)−x1+xh(x)=\ln(1+x)-\dfrac{x}{1+x}</span><span><span><span></span><span>h</span><span>(</span><span>x</span><span>)</span><span></span><span>=</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>ln</span><span>(</span><span>1</span><span></span><span>+</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>x</span><span>)</span><span></span><span>−</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span></span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>1</span><span></span><span>+</span><span></span><span>x</span></span></span><span><span></span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span>x</span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span></span></span></span></span>，<span><span>h(0)=0h(0)=0</span><span><span><span></span><span>h</span><span>(</span><span>0</span><span>)</span><span></span><span>=</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>0</span></span></span></span>，<span><span>h′(x)=11+x−1(1+x)2=x(1+x)2&gt;0h'(x)=\dfrac{1}{1+x}-\dfrac{1}{(1+x)^2}=\dfrac{x}{(1+x)^2}&gt;0</span><span><span><span></span><span><span>h</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span>′</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span>(</span><span>x</span><span>)</span><span></span><span>=</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span></span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>1</span><span></span><span>+</span><span></span><span>x</span></span></span><span><span></span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span>1</span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span></span><span></span><span>−</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span></span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>(</span><span>1</span><span></span><span>+</span><span></span><span>x</span><span><span>)</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>2</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span><span></span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span>1</span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span></span><span></span><span>=</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span></span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>(</span><span>1</span><span></span><span>+</span><span></span><span>x</span><span><span>)</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>2</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span><span></span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span>x</span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span></span><span></span><span>&gt;</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>0</span></span></span></span>，所以 <span><span>h(x)&gt;0h(x)&gt;0</span><span><span><span></span><span>h</span><span>(</span><span>x</span><span>)</span><span></span><span>&gt;</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>0</span></span></span></span>。</p><p><strong>4.</strong> 求方程 <span><span>x3−3x+1=0x^3-3x+1=0</span><span><span><span></span><span><span>x</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>3</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span><span>−</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>3</span><span>x</span><span></span><span>+</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>1</span><span></span><span>=</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>0</span></span></span></span> 的实根个数。</p>
点击查看答案<p>令 <span><span>f(x)=x3−3x+1f(x)=x^3-3x+1</span><span><span><span></span><span>f</span><span>(</span><span>x</span><span>)</span><span></span><span>=</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span>x</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>3</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span><span>−</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>3</span><span>x</span><span></span><span>+</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>1</span></span></span></span>，<span><span>f′(x)=3(x2−1)f'(x)=3(x^2-1)</span><span><span><span></span><span><span>f</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span>′</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span>(</span><span>x</span><span>)</span><span></span><span>=</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>3</span><span>(</span><span><span>x</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>2</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span><span>−</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>1</span><span>)</span></span></span></span>。<span><span>ff</span><span><span><span></span><span>f</span></span></span></span> 在 <span><span>(−∞,−1)(-\infty,-1)</span><span><span><span></span><span>(</span><span>−</span><span>∞</span><span>,</span><span></span><span>−</span><span>1</span><span>)</span></span></span></span> 上增，在 <span><span>(−1,1)(-1,1)</span><span><span><span></span><span>(</span><span>−</span><span>1</span><span>,</span><span></span><span>1</span><span>)</span></span></span></span> 上减，在 <span><span>(1,+∞)(1,+\infty)</span><span><span><span></span><span>(</span><span>1</span><span>,</span><span></span><span>+</span><span>∞</span><span>)</span></span></span></span> 上增。</p><p>极大值 <span><span>f(−1)=3&gt;0f(-1)=3&gt;0</span><span><span><span></span><span>f</span><span>(</span><span>−</span><span>1</span><span>)</span><span></span><span>=</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>3</span><span></span><span>&gt;</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>0</span></span></span></span>，极小值 <span><span>f(1)=−1&lt;0f(1)=-1&lt;0</span><span><span><span></span><span>f</span><span>(</span><span>1</span><span>)</span><span></span><span>=</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>−</span><span>1</span><span></span><span>&lt;</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>0</span></span></span></span>，且 <span><span>x→−∞x\to-\infty</span><span><span><span></span><span>x</span><span></span><span>→</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>−</span><span>∞</span></span></span></span> 时 <span><span>f→−∞f\to-\infty</span><span><span><span></span><span>f</span><span></span><span>→</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>−</span><span>∞</span></span></span></span>，<span><span>x→+∞x\to+\infty</span><span><span><span></span><span>x</span><span></span><span>→</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>+</span><span>∞</span></span></span></span> 时 <span><span>f→+∞f\to+\infty</span><span><span><span></span><span>f</span><span></span><span>→</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>+</span><span>∞</span></span></span></span>。</p><p>三个单调区间上各有一个根，共 <strong>3 个</strong>实根。</p><p><strong>5.</strong> 求曲线 <span><span>y=ln⁡xy=\ln x</span><span><span><span></span><span>y</span><span></span><span>=</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>ln</span><span></span><span>x</span></span></span></span> 上曲率最大的点及最大曲率。</p>
点击查看答案<p><span><span>y′=1xy'=\dfrac1x</span><span><span><span></span><span><span>y</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span>′</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span><span>=</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span></span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>x</span></span></span><span><span></span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span>1</span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span></span></span></span></span>，<span><span>y′′=−1x2y''=-\dfrac1{x^2}</span><span><span><span></span><span><span>y</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span>′′</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span><span>=</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>−</span><span><span></span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span>x</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>2</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span><span></span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span>1</span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span></span></span></span></span>，</p><p><span><span>K(x)=1x2(1+1x2)3/2=x(1+x2)3/2.K(x)=\frac{\frac1{x^2}}{\left(1+\frac1{x^2}\right)^{3/2}}=\frac{x}{(1+x^2)^{3/2}}.</span><span><span><span></span><span>K</span><span>(</span><span>x</span><span>)</span><span></span><span>=</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span></span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span><span><span><span>(</span></span><span>1</span><span>+</span><span><span></span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span><span>x</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span>2</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span><span></span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span><span>1</span></span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span></span><span><span>)</span></span></span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span>3/2</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span><span></span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span><span>x</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span>2</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span><span></span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span><span>1</span></span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span></span><span></span><span>=</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span></span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span>(</span><span>1</span><span>+</span><span><span>x</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>2</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span><span>)</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span>3/2</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span><span></span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span><span>x</span></span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span></span><span>.</span></span></span></span></p><p><span><span>K′(x)=1−2x2(1+x2)5/2K'(x)=\dfrac{1-2x^2}{(1+x^2)^{5/2}}</span><span><span><span></span><span><span>K</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span>′</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span>(</span><span>x</span><span>)</span><span></span><span>=</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span></span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>(</span><span>1</span><span></span><span>+</span><span></span><span><span>x</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>2</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span><span>)</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span>5/2</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span><span></span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span>1</span><span></span><span>−</span><span></span><span>2</span><span><span>x</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>2</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span></span></span></span></span>，唯一驻点 <span><span>x=12x=\dfrac{1}{\sqrt2}</span><span><span><span></span><span>x</span><span></span><span>=</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span></span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span>2</span></span><span><span></span><span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span><span></span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span>1</span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span></span></span></span></span>，左正右负，是最大值点。</p><p>最大曲率 <span><span>K=1/2(3/2)3/2=239K=\dfrac{1/\sqrt2}{(3/2)^{3/2}}=\dfrac{2\sqrt3}{9}</span><span><span><span></span><span>K</span><span></span><span>=</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span></span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>(</span><span>3/2</span><span><span>)</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span>3/2</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span><span></span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span>1/</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span>2</span></span><span><span></span><span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span></span><span></span><span>=</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span></span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>9</span></span></span><span><span></span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span>2</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span>3</span></span><span><span></span><span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span></span></span></span></span>，对应点为 <span><span>(12,−ln⁡22)\left(\dfrac{1}{\sqrt2},-\dfrac{\ln2}{2}\right)</span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span>(</span></span><span><span></span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span>2</span></span><span><span></span><span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span><span></span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span>1</span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span></span><span>,</span><span></span><span>−</span><span><span></span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>2</span></span></span><span><span></span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span><span>ln</span><span></span><span>2</span></span></span></span><span>​</span></span><span><span><span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span></span><span><span>)</span></span></span></span></span></span>。</p></section>
<section><h2>八、本章小结<a href="#八本章小结"><span>#</span></a></h2><ul>
<li>洛必达：<strong>先化简，洛一次后看能否等价替换</strong>；只知道一点处高阶导数时，最后一步用导数定义。</li>
<li>泰勒公式：佩亚诺余项管<strong>局部</strong>（极限、极值），拉格朗日余项管<strong>整体</strong>（不等式、证明题）。</li>
<li>极值候选点：<strong>驻点 + 不可导点</strong>；最值还要加上<strong>端点</strong>。</li>
<li>拐点候选点：<strong><span><span>f′′=0f''=0</span><span><span><span></span><span><span>f</span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span>′′</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span></span><span>=</span><span></span></span><span><span></span><span>0</span></span></span></span> 或不存在</strong>，并且两侧要变号；结果写成坐标。</li>
<li>渐近线：铅直看无定义点，水平和斜分 <span><span>±∞\pm\infty</span><span><span><span></span><span>±</span><span>∞</span></span></span></span> 讨论。</li>
<li>不等式：作差构造函数，用单调性、最值、凹凸性或泰勒公式。</li>
<li>根的个数：<strong>分离参数</strong>，研究单调性、极值和<strong>端点极限</strong>。</li>
</ul><p>下一篇：<strong>05 不定积分</strong>。</p></section>]]></content>
    </entry>
    <entry>
      <id>https://gsxbxsg.github.io/posts/markdown-demo/</id>
      <title type="text">Markdown 语法速查</title>
      <published>2026-10-03T00:00:00.000Z</published>
      <updated>2026-10-03T00:00:00.000Z</updated>
      <author><name>ELEC</name></author>
      <link rel="alternate" href="https://gsxbxsg.github.io/posts/markdown-demo/"/>
      <summary type="text">写博客最常用的 Markdown 语法整理。</summary>
      <content type="html"><![CDATA[<p>写博客最常用的 Markdown 语法整理。</p>
<section><h2>文字样式<a href="#文字样式"><span>#</span></a></h2><p><strong>粗体</strong>、<em>斜体</em>、删除线、<code>行内代码</code></p></section>
<section><h2>列表<a href="#列表"><span>#</span></a></h2><ol>
<li>有序一</li>
<li>有序二</li>
</ol><ul>
<li>无序一</li>
<li>无序二</li>
</ul></section>
<section><h2>代码<a href="#代码"><span>#</span></a></h2><div><figure><figcaption></figcaption><pre><code><div><div><div>1</div></div><div><span>def</span><span> </span><span>hello</span><span>():</span></div></div><div><div><div>2</div></div><div><span>    </span><span>print</span><span>(</span><span>"Hello, Astro!"</span><span>)</span></div></div></code></pre><div><div></div><div></div></div></figure></div></section>
<section><h2>引用与链接<a href="#引用与链接"><span>#</span></a></h2><blockquote><p>这是一段引用。</p></blockquote><p><a href="https://astro.build" target="_blank">Astro 官网</a></p></section>]]></content>
    </entry>
    <entry>
      <id>https://gsxbxsg.github.io/posts/hello-world/</id>
      <title type="text">Hello World —— 博客开张啦</title>
      <published>2026-10-02T00:00:00.000Z</published>
      <updated>2026-10-02T00:00:00.000Z</updated>
      <author><name>ELEC</name></author>
      <link rel="alternate" href="https://gsxbxsg.github.io/posts/hello-world/"/>
      <summary type="text">欢迎来到我的博客！这是用 Astro + Firefly 主题搭建的第一篇文章。</summary>
      <content type="html"><![CDATA[<p>欢迎来到我的博客！这是我的第一篇文章——博客最初用 Hexo + Butterfly 搭建，现在已经迁移到 <strong>Astro + Firefly</strong> 主题。</p>
<section><h2>为什么写博客<a href="#为什么写博客"><span>#</span></a></h2><ul>
<li>整理思路</li>
<li>记录成长</li>
<li>与他人分享</li>
</ul><blockquote><p>千里之行，始于足下。</p></blockquote></section>]]></content>
    </entry>
    <entry>
      <id>https://gsxbxsg.github.io/posts/hexo-butterfly-guide/</id>
      <title type="text">Hexo + Butterfly 快速上手</title>
      <published>2026-10-02T00:00:00.000Z</published>
      <updated>2026-10-03T00:00:00.000Z</updated>
      <author><name>ELEC</name></author>
      <link rel="alternate" href="https://gsxbxsg.github.io/posts/hexo-butterfly-guide/"/>
      <summary type="text">记录如何快速搭建一个 Hexo 博客并应用 Butterfly 主题。本站现已迁移至 Astro + Firefly，本文作为历史记录保留。</summary>
      <content type="html"><![CDATA[<p>本文记录如何快速搭建一个 Hexo 博客并应用 Butterfly 主题。</p>
<div><div><div></div><div>Note</div></div><div><p>本站已于 2026-10-03 从 Hexo + Butterfly 迁移到 <strong>Astro + Firefly</strong>。本文作为历史记录保留，内容仍适用于想使用 Hexo 的读者。</p></div></div>
<section><h2>安装<a href="#安装"><span>#</span></a></h2><div><figure><figcaption><span></span><span>Terminal window</span></figcaption><pre><code><div><div><div>1</div></div><div><span>npm</span><span> </span><span>install</span><span> </span><span>-g</span><span> </span><span>hexo-cli</span></div></div><div><div><div>2</div></div><div><span>hexo</span><span> </span><span>init</span><span> </span><span>blog</span><span> &amp;&amp; </span><span>cd</span><span> </span><span>blog</span></div></div><div><div><div>3</div></div><div><span>npm</span><span> </span><span>install</span><span> </span><span>hexo-theme-butterfly</span><span> </span><span>hexo-renderer-pug</span><span> </span><span>hexo-renderer-stylus</span><span> </span><span>--save</span></div></div></code></pre><div><div></div><div></div></div></figure></div></section>
<section><h2>启用主题<a href="#启用主题"><span>#</span></a></h2><p>修改 <code>_config.yml</code>：</p><div><figure><figcaption></figcaption><pre><code><div><div><div>1</div></div><div><span>theme</span><span>: </span><span>butterfly</span></div></div></code></pre><div><div></div><div></div></div></figure></div><p>并把 <code>node_modules/hexo-theme-butterfly/_config.yml</code> 复制为根目录的 <code>_config.butterfly.yml</code>，之后所有主题配置都在这个文件修改，升级主题不会丢失。</p></section>
<section><h2>常用命令<a href="#常用命令"><span>#</span></a></h2>

<table><thead><tr><th>命令</th><th>说明</th></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td><code>hexo new "标题"</code></td><td>新建文章</td></tr><tr><td><code>hexo server</code></td><td>本地预览</td></tr><tr><td><code>hexo generate</code></td><td>生成静态文件</td></tr><tr><td><code>hexo clean</code></td><td>清理缓存</td></tr></tbody></table></section>]]></content>
    </entry>
</feed>
